To this point we have been talking mostly about the functional and structural properties of words and parts of words (the lexicon and morphology). In this chapter we will begin to talk more specifically about syntax – how words combine into larger structures such as phrases and clauses. Along with the lexicon and morphology, the syntax of any language provides speakers with an important structural dimension that allows them to communicate meaning. In this chapter, we will discuss some universal features of syntactic structure that all methods of syntactic analysis must be able to represent. Then we will discuss the differences between syntactic categories and syntactic functions. Finally, we will outline a few analytical methods for understanding English syntax, and will propose a couple of different ways of displaying syntactic structures. In Chapter 8, the concepts and methods described in the present chapter will be applied to a few advanced topics in English clause structure.

Universal features of syntactic structure

Linear order, constituency (also referred to as syntactic merger, “grouping,” or “clumping”), and hierarchical structure (also referred to as “nesting”) are major features of the syntax of all human languages. All these features provide important clues to a speaker's intended meaning.