World Drug Report 2020 (United Nations publication, Sales No. E.20.XI.6).Google Scholar

World Drug Report 2020 (United Nations publication, Sales No. E.20.XI.6).Google Scholar

Srisurapanont, M, Jarusuraisin, N, Kittirattanapaiboon, P. Treatment for amphetamine dependence and abuse (review). Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2001;(4):CD003022. Review update in: Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2014;4:CD003022.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Altman, J, Everitt, BJ, Glautier, S, et al. The biological, social and clinical bases of drug addiction: commentary and debate. Psychopharmacology 1996;125(4):285–345.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Ellinwood, Jr EH, Petrie, WM. Dependence on amphetamine, cocaine, and other stimulants. In: Pradhan, SN, Dutta, SN, eds. Drug Abuse: Clinical and Basic Aspects, pp. 248–262. St. Louis, MO, CV Mosby, 1977.Google Scholar

United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. Early Warning Advisory on New Psychoactive Substances. Available at: www.unodc.org/LSS/Page/NPS [last accessed 25 April 2022].Google Scholar

World Drug Report 2019 (United Nations publication, Sales No. E.19.XI.9).Google Scholar

Miliano, C, Serpelloni, G, Rimondo, C, Mereu, M, Marti, M, De Luca, AM. Neuropharmacology of new psychoactive substances (NPS): focus on the rewarding and reinforcing properties of cannabimimetics and amphetamine-like stimulants. Front Neurosci 2016 (online). https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2016.00153Google Scholar

World Drug Report 2019 (United Nations publication, Sales No. E.19.XI.9).Google Scholar

World Drug Report 2020 (United Nations publication, Sales No. E.20.XI.6).Google Scholar

Miliano, C, Serpelloni, G, Rimondo, C, Mereu, M, Marti, M, De Luca, AM. Neuropharmacology of new psychoactive substances (NPS): focus on the rewarding and reinforcing properties of cannabimimetics and amphetamine-like stimulants. Front Neurosci 2016 (online). https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2016.00153Google Scholar

European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction. European Drug Report 2019: Trends and Developments. Luxembourg, Publications Office of the European Union, 2019.Google Scholar

Kapitány-Fövény, M, Rácz, J. Synthetic cannabinoid and synthetic cathinone use in Hungary: a literature review. Dev Health Sci 2018;1(3): 63–69. https://doi.org/10.1556/2066.2.2018.18Google Scholar

McAule A, Palmateer NE, Goldberg DJ, et al. Re-emergence of HIV related to injecting drug use despite a comprehensive harm reduction environment: a cross-sectional analysis. Lancet HIV 201;6(5):e315–e324.Google Scholar

European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction. Drugs in Syringes from Six European Cities: Results from the ESCAPE Project 2017. Luxembourg, Publications Office of the European Union, 2019.Google Scholar

European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction. Drug-related Infectious Diseases in Europe: Update from the EMCDDA expert network. Luxembourg, Publications Office of the European Union, 2019.Google Scholar

European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction. European Drug Report 2019: Trends and Developments. Luxembourg, Publications Office of the European Union, 2019.Google Scholar

Tarján, A, Dudás, M, Gyarmathy, VA, Rusvai, E, Tresó, B, Csohán, Á. Emerging risks due to new injecting patterns in Hungary during austerity times. Subst Use Misuse 2015;50(7):848–858.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Giese, C, Igoe, D, Gibbons, Z, et al. Injection of new psychoactive substance snow blow associated with recently acquired HIV infections among homeless people who inject drugs in Dublin, Ireland. Eurosurveillance 2015;20(40):30036. https://doi.org/10.2807/1560-7917.ES.2015.20.40.30036Google Scholar

European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction. Drug-related Infectious Diseases in Europe: Update from the EMCDDA expert network. Luxembourg, Publications Office of the European Union, 2019.Google Scholar

European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction. European Drug Report 2019: Trends and Developments. Luxembourg, Publications Office of the European Union, 2019.Google Scholar

European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction. Drug-related Infectious Diseases in Europe: Update from the EMCDDA expert network. Luxembourg, Publications Office of the European Union, 2019.Google Scholar

United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. World Drug Report 2019. Vienna, Austria, UNODC, 2019.Google Scholar

World Drug Report 2019 (United Nations publication, Sales No. E.19.XI.9).Google Scholar

Carvalho, M, Carmo, H, Costa, VM, et al. Toxicity of amphetamines: an update. Arch Toxicol 2012;86(8):1167–1231. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00204-012-0815-5CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Kraemer, T, Maurer, HH. Toxicokinetics of amphetamines: metabolism and toxicokinetic data of designer drugs, amphetamine, methamphetamine, and their N-alkyl derivatives. Ther Drug Monit 2002;24(2):277–279.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

de la Torre, R, Farre, M, Navarro, M, Pacifici, R, Zuccaro, P, Pichini, S. Clinical pharmacokinetics of amphetamine and related substances: monitoring in conventional and non-conventional matrices. Clin Pharmacokinet 2004;43(3):157–185.Google Scholar

Glennon, RA, Young, R, Dukat, M, Cheng, Y. Initial characterization of PMMA as a discriminative stimulus. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 1997;57(1–2):151–158.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Carroll, FI, Lewin, AH, Mascarella, SW, Seltzman, HH, Reddy, PA. Designer drugs: a medicinal chemistry perspective. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2012;1248:18–38. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-6632.2011.06199.xGoogle Scholar

Luethia, D, Kolaczynska, KE, Doccia, L, Krähenbühla, S, Hoenerb, MC, Liechtia, ME. Pharmacological profile of mephedrone analogs and related new psychoactive substances. Neuropharmacology 2018;134(Part A):4–12 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropharm.2017.07.026Google Scholar

Iversen, LL. Speed, Ecstasy, Ritalin: The Science of Amphetamines. Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2006.Google Scholar

Castells, X, Blanco-Silvente, L, Cunill, R. Amphetamines for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in adults. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2018;8:CD007813. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD007813.pub3Google Scholar

United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. World Drug Report, Booklet 4, Stimulants. World Drug Report 2019 (United Nations publication, Sales No. E.19.XI.9).Google Scholar

World Health Organization, Western Pacific Region. Patterns and Consequences of the Use of Amphetamine-Type Stimulants (ATS) (Technical Brief 1 on Amphetamine-Type Stimulants).Google Scholar

World Health Organization. Amphetamine-Type Stimulants. Published 1997.Google Scholar

European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA). The Levels of Use of Opioids, Amphetamines and Cocaine and Associated Levels of Harm: Summary of Scientific Evidence. Published March 2014.Google Scholar

Corkery, JM, Elliott, S, Schifano, F, Corazza, O, Ghodse, AH. DPMP (desoxypipradrol, 2-benzhydrylpiperidine, 2-phenylmethylpiperidine) and D2PM (diphenyl-2-pyrrolidin-2-yl-methanol, diphenylprolinol): a preliminary review. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2012;39(2):253–258. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pnpbp.2012.05.021CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Davidson, C, Ramsey, J. Desoxypipradrol is more potent than cocaine on evoked dopamine efflux in the nucleus accumbens. J Psychopharmacol 2012;26(7):1036–1041. https://doi.org/10.1177/0269881111430733Google Scholar

Murray, DB, Potts, S, Haxton, C, et al. ‘Ivory wave’ toxicity in recreational drug users; integration of clinical and poisons information services to manage legal high poisoning. Clin Toxicol 2012;50(2):108–113. https://doi.org/10.3109/15563650.2011.647992CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

King, GR, Ellinwood, Jr EH. Amphetamines and other stimulants. In: Lowinson, JH, Ruiz, P, Millman, RB, Langrod, JG, eds. Substance Abuse: A Comprehensive Textbook, 3rd edn., pp. 207–223. Baltimore, MD, Williams and Wilkins, 1997.Google Scholar

O’Donnell, A, Addison, M, Spencer, L, et al. Which individual, social and environmental influences shape key phases in the amphetamine-type stimulant use trajectory? A systematic narrative review and thematic synthesis of the qualitative literature. Addiction 2019;114:24–47.Google Scholar

Public Health England, Health Protection Scotland, Public Health Wales, Public Health Agency Northern Ireland. Shooting Up: Infections among People Who Inject Drugs in the United Kingdom 2012. Public Health England, November 2013.Google Scholar

Harada, T, Tsutomi, H, Mori, R, Wilson, DB. Cognitive-behavioural treatment for amphetamine-type stimulants (ATS)-use disorders. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2018;12:CD011315. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD011315.pub2Google ScholarPubMed

Harada, T, Tsutomi, H, Mori, R, Wilson, DB. Cognitive-behavioural treatment for amphetamine-type stimulants (ATS)-use disorders. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2018;12:CD011315. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD011315.pub2Google Scholar

Singleton, J, Degenhardt, L, Hall, W, Zábranský, T. Mortality among amphetamine users: a systematic review of cohort studies. Drug Alcohol Depend 2009;105(1–2):1–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. drugalcdep.2009.05.028Google Scholar

Colfax, G, Santos, G-M, Chu, P, et al. Amphetamine-group substances and HIV. Lancet 2010;376(9739):458–474. https://doi.org/10.1016/ S0140-6736(10)60753-2CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Darke, S, Kaye, S, McKetin, R, Duflou, J. Major physical and psychological harms of methamphetamine use. Drug Alcohol Rev 2008;27(3):253–262. https://doi.org/10.1080/09595230801923702Google Scholar

Grund, J-P, Coffin, P, Jauffret-Roustide, M, et al. The fast and the furious: cocaine, amphetamines and harm reduction. In: Rhodes, T, Hedrich, D, eds. Harm Reduction: Evidence, Impacts and Challenges, pp. 191–232. Luxembourg, Publications Office of the European Union, 2010.Google Scholar

See for example Lehmann, S, Kieliba, T, Thevis, M, et al. Fatalities associated with NPS stimulants in the Greater Cologne area. Int J Legal Med 2020;134:229–241. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00414-019-02193-zCrossRefGoogle Scholar

Hill, S, Thomas, SH. Clinical toxicology of newer recreational drugs. Clin Toxicol 2011;49(8):705–719. https://doi.org/10.3109/15563650.2011.615318Google Scholar

Advisory Council on the Misuse of Drugs (ACMD). Desoxypipradrol (2-DPMP) advice. London, 2011. Available at: https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/119114/desoxypipradrol-report.pdf [last accessed 25 April 2022].Google Scholar

United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Laboratory and Scientific Section. Details for phenethylamines. Available at: www.unodc.org/LSS/SubstanceGroup/Details/275dd468-75a3-4609-9e96-cc5a2f0da467 [last accessed 8 March 2022].Google Scholar

Pérez-Mañá, C, Castells, X, Torrens, M, Capellà, D, Farre, M. Efficacy of psychostimulant drugs for amphetamine abuse or dependence (review). Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2013;2(9):CD009695. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD009695.pub2Google Scholar

Darke, S, Duflou, J, Kaye, S, Farrell, M, Lappin, J. Psychostimulant use and fatal stroke in young adults. J Forensic Sci 2019;64(5):1421–1426. https://doi.org/10.1111/1556-4029.14056Google Scholar

Henry, JA, Jeffreys, KJ, Dawling, S. Toxicity and deaths from 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (‘ecstasy’). Lancet 1992;340:384–387.Google Scholar

Green, AR, O’Shea, E, Colado, MI. A review of the mechanisms involved in the acute MDMA (ecstasy)-induced hyperthermic response. Eur J Pharmacol 2004;500(1–3):3–13.Google Scholar

Jaehne, EJ, Salem, A, Irvine, RJ. Pharmacological and behavioural determinants of cocaine, methamphetamine, 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine, and para-methoxyamphetamine-induced hyperthermia. Psychopharmacology 2007;194(1):41–52.Google Scholar

Kalant, H, Kalant, OJ. Death in amphetamine users: causes and rates. Can Med Assoc J 1975;112:299–304.Google Scholar

Kendrick, WC, Hull, AR, Knochel, JP. Rhabdomyolysis and shock after intravenous amphetamine administration. Ann Int Med 1977;86:381–387.Google Scholar

Sun-Edelstein, C, Tepper, SJ, Shapiro, RE. Drug-induced serotonin syndrome: a review. Expert Opin Drug Saf 2008;7(5):587–596. https://doi.org/10.1517/14740338.7.5.587Google Scholar

Wang, RZ, Vashistha, V, Kaur, S, Houchens, NW. Serotonin syndrome: preventing, recognizing, and treating it. Cleve Clin J Med 2016;83(11):810–817. https://doi.org/10.3949/ccjm.83a.15129Google Scholar

Gillman, PK. Triptans, serotonin agonists, and serotonin syndrome (serotonin toxicity): a review. Headache 2010;50:264–272.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Huether, G, Zhou, D, Ruther, E. Causes and consequences of the loss of serotonergic presynapses elicited by the consumption of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, ‘ecstasy’) and its congeners. J Neural Transm 1997;104:771–794.Google Scholar

Schifano, F. A bitter pill. Overview of ecstasy (MDMA, MDA)-related fatalities. Psychopharmacology 2004;173:242–248.Google Scholar

Sternbach, H. The serotonin syndrome. Am J Psychiatry 1991;148:705–713.Google Scholar

Gill, M, LoVecchio, F, Selden, B. Serotonin syndrome in a child after a single dose of fluvoxamine. Ann Emerg Med 1999;33:457–459.Google Scholar

Parrott, AC. Recreational ecstasy/MDMA, the serotonin syndrome, and serotonergic neurotoxicity. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2002;71:837–844.Google Scholar

Lee, DO, Lee, CD. Serotonin syndrome in a child associated with erythromycin and sertraline. Pharmacotherapy 1999;19:894–896.Google Scholar

Gardner, MD, Lynd, LD. Sumatriptan contraindications and the serotonin syndrome. Ann Pharmacother 1998;32:33–38.Google Scholar

Giese, SY, Neborsky, R. Serotonin syndrome: potential consequences of Meridia combined with demerol or fentanyl. Plast Reconstr Surg 2001;107:293–294.Google Scholar

DeSilva, KE, Le Flore, DB, Marston, BJ, Rimland, D. Serotonin syndrome in HIV-infected individuals receiving antiretroviral therapy and fluoxetine. AIDS 2001;15:1281–1285.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Callaway, JC, Grob, CS. Ayahuasca preparations and serotonin reuptake inhibitors: a potential combination for severe adverse reactions. J Psychoactive Drugs 1998;30:367–369.Google Scholar

Izzo, AA, Ernst, E. Interactions between herbal medicines and prescribed drugs: a systematic review. Drugs 2001;61:2163–2175.Google Scholar

Lange-Asschenfeldt, C, Weigmann, H, Hiemke, C, Mann, K. Serotonin syndrome as a result of fluoxetine in a patient with tramadol abuse: plasma level-correlated symptomatology. J Clin Psychopharmacol 2002;22:440–441.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Turkel, SB, Nadala, JG, Wincor, MZ. Possible serotonin syndrome in association with 5-HT(3) antagonist agents. Psychosomatics 2001;42:258–260.Google Scholar

Isbister, GK, Bowe, SJ, Dawson, A, Whyte, IM. Relative toxicity of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) in overdose. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol 2004;42:277–285.Google Scholar

Copeland, J, Dillon, P, Gascoigne, M. Ecstasy and the concomitant use of pharmaceuticals (NDARC Technical Report 201). National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, University of New South Wales, 2004.Google Scholar

Copeland, J, Dillon, P, Gascoigne, M. Ecstasy and the concomitant use of pharmaceuticals. Addict Behav 2006;31:367–370.Google Scholar

Boyer, EW, Shannon, M. The serotonin syndrome. N Engl J Med 2005;352:1112–1120.Google Scholar

Dunkley, EJ, Isbister, GK, Sibbritt, D, Dawson, AH, Whyte, IM. The Hunter serotonin toxicity criteria: simple and accurate diagnostic decision rules for serotonin toxicity. QJM 2003;96:635–642.Google Scholar

Williams, H, Dratcu, L, Taylor, R, Roberts, M, Oyefeso, A. ‘Saturday night fever’: ecstasy related problems in a London accident and emergency department. J Accid Emerg Med 1998;15(5):322–326.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Milroy, CM, Clark, JC, Forrest, AR. Pathology of deaths associated with ‘ecstasy’ and ‘eve’ misuse. J Clin Pathol 1996;49(2):149–153.Google Scholar

Winstock, AR, Griffiths, P, Stewart, D. Drugs and the dance music scene: a survey of current drug use patterns among a sample of dance music enthusiasts in the UK. Drug Alcohol Depend 2001;64(1):9–17.Google Scholar

Sternbach, H. The serotonin syndrome. Am J Psychiatry 1991;148:705–713.Google Scholar

Gill, M, LoVecchio, F, Selden, B. Serotonin syndrome in a child after a single dose of fluvoxamine. Ann Emerg Med 1999;33:457–459.Google Scholar

Parrott, AC. Recreational ecstasy/MDMA, the serotonin syndrome, and serotonergic neurotoxicity. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2002;71:837–844.Google Scholar

Lee, DO, Lee, CD. Serotonin syndrome in a child associated with erythromycin and sertraline. Pharmacotherapy 1999;19:894–896.Google Scholar

Gardner, MD, Lynd, LD. Sumatriptan contraindications and the serotonin syndrome. Ann Pharmacother 1998;32:33–38.Google Scholar

Giese, SY, Neborsky, R. Serotonin syndrome: potential consequences of Meridia combined with demerol or fentanyl. Plast Reconstr Surg 2001;107:293–294.Google Scholar

DeSilva, KE, Le Flore, DB, Marston, BJ, Rimland, D. Serotonin syndrome in HIV-infected individuals receiving antiretroviral therapy and fluoxetine. AIDS 2001;15:1281–1285.Google Scholar

Callaway, JC, Grob, CS. Ayahuasca preparations and serotonin reuptake inhibitors: a potential combination for severe adverse reactions. J Psychoactive Drugs 1998;30:367–369.Google Scholar

Izzo, AA, Ernst, E. Interactions between herbal medicines and prescribed drugs: a systematic review. Drugs 2001;61:2163–2175.Google Scholar

Lange-Asschenfeldt, C, Weigmann, H, Hiemke, C, Mann, K. Serotonin syndrome as a result of fluoxetine in a patient with tramadol abuse: plasma level-correlated symptomatology. J Clin Psychopharmacol 2002;22:440–441.Google Scholar

Turkel, SB, Nadala, JG, Wincor, MZ. Possible serotonin syndrome in association with 5-HT(3) antagonist agents. Psychosomatics 2001;42:258–260.Google Scholar

Demirkiran, M, Jankivic, J, Dean, JM. Ecstasy intoxication: an overlap between serotonin syndrome and neuroleptic malignant syndrome. Clin Neuropharmacol 1996;19:157–164.Google Scholar

Gillman, PK. Ecstasy, serotonin syndrome and the treatment of hyperpyrexia. Med J Aust 1997;167:109–111.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Parrott, AC. MDMA, serotonergic neurotoxicity, and the diverse functional deficits of recreational ‘ecstasy’ users. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2013;37(8):1466–1484. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. neubiorev.2013.04.016CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Garrett, G, Sweeney, M. The serotonin syndrome as a result of mephedrone toxicity. BMJ Case Rep 2010;2010:bcr0420102925. https://doi.org/10.1136/bcr.04.2010.2925Google Scholar

Mugele, J, Nañagas, KA, Tormoehlen, LM. Serotonin syndrome associated with MDPV use: a case report. Ann Emerg Med 2012;60(1):100–102. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annemergmed.2011.11.033Google Scholar

Bosak, A, LoVecchio, F, Levine, M. Recurrent seizures and serotonin syndrome following ‘2C-I’ ingestion. J Med Toxicol 2013;9(2):196–198. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13181-013-0287-xGoogle Scholar

Silins, E, Copeland, J, Dillon, P. Qualitative review of serotonin syndrome, ecstasy (MDMA) and the use of other serotonergic substances: hierarchy of risk. Aust NZ J Psychiatry 2007;41(8):649–655.Google Scholar

Mason, PJ, Morris, VA, Balcezak, TJ. Serotonin syndrome: presentation of 2 cases and review of the literature. Medicine 2000;79:201–209.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Werneke, U, Jamshidi, F, Taylor, DM, Ott M. Conundrums in neurology: diagnosing serotonin syndrome – a meta-analysis of cases. BMC Neurology 2016;16:97. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12883-016–0616–1Google Scholar

Sun-Edelstein, C, Tepper, SJ, Shapiro, RE. Drug-induced serotonin syndrome: a review. Exp Opin Drug Safety 2008;7(5):587–596.Google Scholar

Sternbach, H. The serotonin syndrome. Am J Psychiatry 1991;148:705–713.Google Scholar

Radomski, JW, Dursun, SM, Reveley, MA, Kutcher, SP. An exploratory approach to the serotonin syndrome: an update of clinical phenomenology and revised diagnostic criteria. Med Hypotheses 2000;55:218–224.Google Scholar

Dunkley, EJ, Isbister, GK, Sibbritt, D, Dawson, AH, Whyte, IM. The hunter serotonin toxicity criteria: simple and accurate diagnostic decision rules for serotonin toxicity. QJM 2003;96:635–642.Google Scholar

Werneke, U, Jamshidi, F, Taylor, DM, Ott M. Conundrums in neurology: diagnosing serotonin syndrome – a meta-analysis of cases. BMC Neurology 2016;16:97. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12883-016–0616–1Google Scholar

Radomski, JW, Dursun, SM, Revely, MA, Kutcher, SP. An exploratory approach to the serotonin syndrome; an update of clinical phenomenology and revised diagnostic criteria. Med Hypotheses 2000;55:218–224.Google Scholar

Birmes, P, Coppin, D, Schmitt, L, Lauque D. Serotonin syndrome: a brief review. CMAJ 2003;168(11):1439.Google Scholar

Watson, WA, Litovitz, TL, Rodgers, GC Jr, et al. Annual report of the American Association of Poison Control Centers Toxic Exposure Surveillance System. Am J Emerg Med 2003;21:353–421.Google Scholar

Ables, AZ, Nagubilli, R. Prevention, recognition, and management of serotonin syndrome. Am Fam Physician 2010;81(9):1139–1142.Google Scholar

Dinesh, D, Patel, K, Galarneau, D. Serotonin syndrome with fluoxetine: two case reports. Ochsner J 2016;16:554–557.Google Scholar

Mason, PJ, Morris, VA, Balceza, K TJ. Serotonin syndrome. Presentation of 2 cases and review of the literature. Medicine 2000;79:201–209.Google Scholar

Dinesh, D, Patel, K, Galarneau, D. Serotonin syndrome with fluoxetine: two case reports. Ochsner J 2016;16:554–557.Google Scholar

Jaunay, E, Gaillac, V, Guelfi, JD. Syndrome sérotoninergique. Quel traitement et quand? Presse Med 2001;30:1695–1700.Google Scholar

Gillman, PK. The serotonin syndrome and its treatment. J Psychopharmacol 1999;13(1):100–109.Google Scholar

Dinesh, D, Patel, K, Galarneau, D. Serotonin syndrome with fluoxetine: two case reports. Ochsner J 2016;16:554–557.Google Scholar

Gillman, PK. Monoamine oxidase inhibitors, opioid analgesics and serotonin toxicity. Br J Anaesth 2005;95:434–441.Google Scholar

Ener, R, Meglathery, S, Van Decker, W, Gallagher, R. Serotonin syndrome and other serotonergic disorders. Pain Med 2003;4:63–74.Google Scholar

Birmes, P, Coppin, D, Schmitt, L, Lauque, D. Serotonin syndrome: a brief review. JAMC 2003;168(11):1439–1442.Google Scholar

Turner, AH, Kim, JK, McCarron, RM, Nguyen, CT. Differentiating serotonin syndrome and neuroleptic malignant syndrome. Curr Psychiatr 2019;18:30–36.Google Scholar

Werneke, U, Jamshidi, F, Taylor, DM, Ott M. Conundrums in neurology: diagnosing serotonin syndrome – a meta-analysis of cases. BMC Neurology 2016;16:97. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12883-016–0616–1Google Scholar

Katus, LE, Frucht, SJ. Management of serotonin syndrome and neuroleptic malignant syndrome. Curr Treat Options Neurol 2016;18:39. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11940-016–0423–4Google Scholar

World Health Organization, Western Pacific Region. Harm Reduction and Brief Interventions for ATS Users (Technical Brief on Amphetamine-Type Stimulants 2). Available at: www.who.int/hiv/pub/idu/ats_brief2.pdf [last accessed 8 March 2022].Google Scholar

Schuckit, MA, Daeppen, JB, Danko, GP, et al. Clinical implications for four drugs of the DSM-IV distinction between substance dependence with and without a physiological component. Am J Psychiatry 1999;156(1):41–49.Google Scholar

Shoptaw, SJ, Kao U,Heinzerling K, Ling, W. Treatment for amphetamine withdrawal. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2009;(2):CD003021. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD003021.pub2Google Scholar

McGregor, C, Srisurapanont, M, Jittiwutikarn, J, Laobhripatr, S, Wongtan, T, White, JM. The nature, time course and severity of methamphetamine withdrawal. Addiction 2005;100(9):1320–1329.Google Scholar

Gossop, MR, Bradley, BP, Brewis, RK. Amphetamine withdrawal and sleep disturbance. Drug Alcohol Depend 1982;10(2–3):177–183.Google Scholar

Kaye, S, McKetin, R. Cardiotoxicity associated with methamphetamine use and signs of cardiovascular pathology among methamphetamine users. National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, University of New South Wales, 2005.Google Scholar

MacLean R, , Sofuoglu M., Stimulants and mood disorders. Curr Addict Rep 2018;5:323–329. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40429-018-0212-0Google Scholar

Harada, T, Tsutomi, H, Mori, R, Wilson, DB. Cognitive-behavioural treatment for amphetamine-type stimulant (ATS)-use disorders. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2018;12:CD011315. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD011315.pub2Google Scholar

Salo, R, Flower, K, Kielstein, A, Leamon, MH, Nordahl, TE, Galloway, GP. Psychiatric comorbidity in methamphetamine dependence. Psychiatry Res 2011;186(2–3):356–361.Google Scholar

Wilens, TE. Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and the substance use disorders: the nature of the relationship, subtypes at risk, and treatment issues. Psychiatr Clin North Am 2004;27(2):283–301.Google Scholar

Glasner-Edwards, S, Mooney, LJ, Marinelli-Casey, P, Hillhouse, M, Ang, A, Rawson, RA, Methamphetamine Treatment Project Corporate Authors. Psychopathology in methamphetamine-dependent adults 3 years after treatment. Drug Alcohol Rev 2010;29:12–20.Google Scholar

McKetin, R, Kelly, E, McLaren, J, Proudfoot, H. Impaired physical health among methamphetamine users in comparison with the general population: the role of methamphetamine dependence and opioid use. Drug Alcohol Rev 2008;27:482–489.Google Scholar

Bramness, JG, Gundersen, OH, Guterstam, J, et al. Amphetamine-induced psychosis–a separate diagnostic entity or primary psychosis triggered in the vulnerable? BMC Psychiatry 2012;12:221.Google Scholar

Shoptaw, SJ, Kao, U, Ling, W. Treatment for amphetamine psychosis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2009;(1):CD003026. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD003026.pub3Google Scholar

Vallersnes, OM, Dines, AM, Wood, DM, et al. Psychosis associated with acute recreational drug toxicity: a European case series. BMC Psychiatry 2016;16:293.Google Scholar

Chen, CK, Lin, SK, Pak, CS, Ball, D, Loh, EW, Murray, RM. Morbid risk for psychiatric disorder among the relatives of methamphetamine users with and without psychosis. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet 2005;136B(1):87–91.Google Scholar

World Health Organization, Western Pacific Region. Therapeutic Interventions for Users of Amphetamine-Type Stimulants (ATS) (Technical Briefs on Amphetamine-Type Stimulants 4).Google Scholar

World Health Organization. ICD-11 6C46.2 Stimulant dependence including amphetamines, methamphetamine or methcathinone. Available at: https://icd.who.int/browse11/l-m/en#/http://id.who.int/icd/entity/2016549355 [last accessed 25 April 2022].Google Scholar

Knapp, WP, Soares, B, Farrell, M, Silva de Lima M. Psychosocial interventions for cocaine and psychostimulant amphetamine-related disorders. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2007;(3):CD003023.Google Scholar

European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA). Best practice portal: treatment options for amphetamines users. Available at: www.emcdda.europa.eu/best-practice/treatment/amphetamines-users [last accessed 9 March 2022].Google Scholar

Soares Tardelli, V, Pimentel Pádua do Lago, M, Mendez, M, Bisaga, A. Management with pharmacologic treatment for stimulant use disorders: a review. Behav Res Ther 2018;111:57–63.Google Scholar

Mimiaga, MJ, Closson, EF, Pantalone, DW, Safren, SA, Mitty, JA. Applying behavioral activation to sustain and enhance the effects of contingency management for reducing stimulant use among individuals with HIV infection. Psychol Health Med 2019;24(3):374–381. https://doi.org/10.1080/13548506.2018.1515492Google Scholar

Glasner, S, Mooney, LJ, Ang, A, et al. Mindfulness-based relapse prevention for stimulant dependent adults: a pilot randomized clinical trial. Mindfulness 2017;8:126–135. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-016-0586-9Google Scholar

Harada, T, Tsutomi, H, Mori, R, Wilson, DB. Cognitive-behavioural treatment for amphetamine-type stimulants (ATS)-use disorders. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2018;12:CD011315. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD011315.pub2Google Scholar

Carmody, T, Greer, TL, Walker, R, Rethorst, CD, Trivedi, MH. A complier average causal effect analysis of the Stimulant Reduction Intervention using dosed exercise study. Contemp Clin Trials Commun 2018;10:1–8.Google Scholar

Haglund, M, Ang, A, Mooney, L, et al. Predictors of depression outcomes among abstinent methamphetamine-dependent individuals exposed to an exercise intervention. Am J Addict 2015;24(3):246–251. https://doi.org/10. 1111/ajad.12175Google Scholar

Zhu, D, Xu, D, Dai, G, Wang, F, Xu, X, Zhou, D. Beneficial effects of Tai Chi for amphetamine-type stimulant dependence: a pilot study. Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse 2016;42(4):469–478. https://doi.org/10.3109/00952990.2016.1153646Google Scholar

Heinzerling, KG, Gender, Shoptaw S., brain-derived neurotrophic factor Val66Met, and frequency of methamphetamine use. Gend Med 2012;9(2):112–120. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.genm.2012.02.005Google Scholar

Holdcraft, LC, Iacono, WG. Cross-generational effects on gender differences in psychoactive drug abuse and dependence. Drug Alcohol Depend 2004;74:147–158.Google Scholar

Roth, ME, Carroll, ME. Sex differences in the acquisition of IV methamphetamine self-administration and subsequent maintenance under a progressive ratio schedule in rats. Psychopharmacology 2004;172:443–449.Google Scholar

Vansickel, AR, Stoops, WW, Rush, CR. Human sex differences in d-amphetamine self-administration. Addiction 2010;105:727–731.Google Scholar

Siefried, KJ, Acheson, LS, Lintzeris, N, et al. Pharmacological treatment of methamphetamine/amphetamine dependence: a systematic review. CNS Drugs 2020;34:337–365. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40263-020-00711-xGoogle Scholar

Runarsdottir, V, Hansdottir, I, Tyrfingsson, T, et al.Extended-release injectable naltrexone (xr-ntx) with intensive psychosocial therapy for amphetamine-dependent persons seeking treatment: a placebo-controlled trial. J Addict Med 2017;11(3):197–204. https://doi.org/10.1097/ADM.0000000000000297Google Scholar

Lee, NK, Jenner L, Harney A, Cameron J. Pharmacotherapy for amphetamine dependence: a systematic review. Drug Alcohol Depend 2018;191:309–337. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2018.06.038Google Scholar

Ashok, AH, Mizuno, Y, Volkow, ND, Howes, OD. Association of stimulant use with dopaminergic alterations in users of cocaine, amphetamine, or methamphetamine: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Psychiatry 2017;74(5):511–519. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2017.0135Google Scholar

Ujike, H, Sato, M. Clinical features of sensitization to methamphetamine observed in patients with methamphetamine dependence and psychosis. Ann NY Acad Sci 2004;1025:279–287.Google Scholar

Leucht, S, Pitschel-Walz, G, Abraham, D, Kissling W. Efficacy and extrapyramidal side-effects of the new antipsychotics olanzapine, quetiapine, risperidone, and sertindole compared to conventional antipsychotics and placebo. A meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. Schizophr Res 1999;35(1):51–68.Google Scholar

Xue, X, Song, Y, Yu, X, Fan, O, Tang, J, Chen, X. Olanzapine and haloperidol for the treatment of acute symptoms of mental disorders induced by amphetamine-type stimulants: a randomized controlled trial. Medicine 2018;97:8.Google Scholar

Bramness, JG, Rognli, EB. Psychosis induced by amphetamines. Curr Opin Psychiatry 2016;29(4):236–241. https://doi.org/10.1097/YCO.0000000000000254Google Scholar

Leelahanaj, T, Kongsakon, R, Netrakom, P. A 4-week, double-blind comparison of olanzapine with haloperidol in the treatment of amphetamine psychosis. J Med Assoc Thailand 2005;88(Suppl.3):43–52.Google Scholar

McIver, C, McGregor, C, Baigent, M, Spain, D, Newcombe, D, Ali, R. Guidelines for the Medical Management of Patients with Methamphetamine-Induced Psychosis. Drug and Alcohol Services, South Australia, 2006.Google Scholar

Fujii, D. Risk factors for treatment-resistive methamphetamine psychosis. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 2002;14(2):239–240.Google Scholar

Iversen, L, White, M, Treble, R. Designer psychostimulants: pharmacology and differences. Neuropharmacology 2014;87:59–65. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropharm.2014.01.015Google Scholar

Mounteney, J, Griffiths, P, Bo, A, Cunningham, A, Matias, J, Pirona A. Nine reasons why ecstasy is not quite what it used to be. Int J Drug Policy 2018;51:36–41.Google Scholar

Nichols, DE. Differences between the mechanism of action of MDMA, MBDB, and the classic hallucinogens. Identification of a new therapeutic class: entactogens. J Psychoactive Drugs 1986;18:305–313.Google Scholar

Sáez-Briones, P, Hernández, A. MDMA (3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine) analogues as tools to characterize MDMA-like effects: an approach to understand entactogen pharmacology. Curr Neuropharmacol 2013;11(5):521.Google Scholar

Hermle, L, Spitzer, M, Borchardt, D, Kovar, KA, Gouzoulis, E. Psychological effects of MDE in normal subjects. Are entactogens a new class of psychoactive agents?Neuropsychopharmacology 1993;8(2):171–176.Google Scholar

Bedi, GD. Is ecstasy an ‘empathogen’? Effects of MDMA on prosocial feelings and identification of emotional states in others. Biol Psychiatry 2010;68(12):1134–1140.Google Scholar

Iversen, LL. Speed, Ecstasy, Ritalin: The Science of Amphetamines. Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2006.Google Scholar

Bershad, AK, Miller, MA, Baggott, MJ, de Wit, H. The effects of MDMA on socioemotional processing: does MDMA differ from other stimulants? J Psychopharmacol 2016;30:1248–1258. https://doi.org/10.1177/0269881116663120Google Scholar

Simmler, LD, Liechti, ME. Pharmacology of MDMA- and amphetamine-like new psychoactive substances. In: Maurer, H, Brandt, S (eds.), New Psychoactive Substances. Handbook of Experimental Pharmacology, vol. 252. Cham, Springer, 2018.Google Scholar

Parrott, AC. Is ecstasy MDMA? A review of the proportion of ecstasy tablets containing MDMA, their dosage levels, and the changing perceptions of purity. Psychopharmacology 2004;173:234–241.Google Scholar

Warrick, BJ, Wilson, J, Hedge, M, Freeman, S, Leonard, K, Aaron, C. Lethal serotonin syndrome after methylone and butylone ingestion. J Med Toxicol 2012;8(1):65–68. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13181-011-0199-6Google Scholar

Kalasinsky, KS, Hugel, J, Kish, SJ. Use of MDA (the ‘love drug’) and methamphetamine in Toronto by unsuspecting users of ecstasy (MDMA). J Forensic Sci 2004;49(5):1106–1112.Google Scholar

European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction. Recent changes in Europe’s MDMA/ecstasy market, EMCDDA Rapid Communication. Luxembourg, Publications Office of the European Union, 2016.Google Scholar

European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction. Recent changes in Europe’s MDMA/ecstasy market, EMCDDA Rapid Communication. Luxembourg, Publications Office of the European Union, 2016.Google Scholar

Miliano, M, Serpelloni, G, Rimondo, C, Mereu, M, Marti, M, De Luca, MA. Neuropharmacology of new psychoactive substances (NPS): focus on the rewarding and reinforcing properties of cannabimimetics and amphetamine-like stimulants. Front Neurosci 2016 (online). https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2016.00153Google Scholar

Zaitsu, K, Katagi, M, Tatsuno, M, Sato, T, Tsuchihashi, H, Suzuki, K. Recently abused β-keto derivatives of 3,4-methylenedioxyphenylalkylamines: a review of their metabolisms and toxicological analysis. Forensic Toxicol 2011;29(2):73–84.Google Scholar

Freudenmann, RW, Spitzer, M. The neuropsychopharmacology and toxicology of 3,4-methylenedioxy-N-ethyl-amphetamine (MDEA). CNS Drug Rev 2004;10(2):89–116.Google Scholar

King, LA. New phenethylamines in Europe. Drug Test Anal 2014;6:808–818.Google Scholar

Winstock, AR, Wolff, K, Ramsey, J. 4-MTA: a new synthetic drug on the dance scene. Drug Alcohol Depend 2002;67(2):111–115.Google Scholar

Cole, JC, Bailey, M, Sumnall, HR, Wagstaff, GF, King, LA. The content of ecstasy tablets: implications for the study of their long-term effects. Addiction 2002;97:1531–1536.Google Scholar

Cheng, WC, Poon, NL, Chan, MF. Chemical profiling of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) tablets seized in Hong Kong. J Forensic Sci 2003;48:1249–1259.Google Scholar

Tanner-Smith, EE. Pharmacological content of tablets sold as ‘ecstasy’: results from an online testing service. Drug Alcohol Depend 2006;83(3):247–254.Google Scholar

European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction. Recent changes in Europe’s MDMA/ecstasy market, EMCDDA Rapid Communication. Luxembourg, Publications Office of the European Union, 2016.Google Scholar

Boulanger-Gobeil, C, St-Onge, M, Laliberté, M, Auger, PL. Seizures and hyponatremia related to ethcathinone and methylone poisoning. J Med Toxicol 2012;8(1):59–61.Google Scholar

Elliott, S, Smith, C. Investigation of the first deaths in the United Kingdom involving the detection and quantitation of the piperazines BZP and 3-TFMPP. J Analytic Toxicol 2008;32(2):172–177.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Ling, LH, Marchant, C, Buckley, NA, Prior, M, Irvine, RJ. Poisoning with the recreational drug paramethoxyamphetamine (‘death’). Med J Australia 2001;174:453–455.Google Scholar

Togni, LR, Lanaro, R, Resende, RR, et al. The variability of ecstasy tablets composition in Brazil. J Forensic Sci 2015;60:147–151.Google Scholar

Palamara, JJ, Acosta, P, Ompad, DC, Cleland, CM. Self-reported ecstasy/MDMA/‘Molly’ use in a sample of nightclub and dance festival attendees in New York City. Subst Use Misuse 2017;52(1):82–91. https://doi.org/10.1080/10826084.2016.1219373Google Scholar

European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction. Recent changes in Europe’s MDMA/ecstasy market, EMCDDA Rapid Communication. Luxembourg, Publications Office of the European Union, 2016.Google Scholar

Smith, ZK, Moore, K, Measham, F. MDMA powder, pills and crystal: the persistence of ecstasy and the poverty of policy. Drugs Alcohol Today 2009;9(1):13–19.Google Scholar

Personal communication, John Ramsey.Google Scholar

European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction. Recent changes in Europe’s MDMA/ecstasy market, EMCDDA Rapid Communication. Luxembourg, Publications Office of the European Union, 2016.Google Scholar

Palamara, JJ, Acosta, P, Ompad, DC, Cleland, CM. Self-reported ecstasy/MDMA/‘Molly’ use in a sample of nightclub and dance festival attendees in New York City. Subst Use Misuse 2017;52(1):82–91. https://doi.org/10.1080/10826084.2016.1219373Google Scholar

European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction. European Drug Report 2019: Trends and Developments. Luxembourg, Publications Office of the European Union, 2019.Google Scholar

European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction. Recent changes in Europe’s MDMA/ecstasy market, EMCDDA Rapid Communication. Luxembourg, Publications Office of the European Union, 2016. Available at: www.emcdda.europa.eu/system/files/publications/2473/TD0116348ENN.pdf [last accessed 23 April 2022].Google Scholar

European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction. Recent changes in Europe’s MDMA/ecstasy market, EMCDDA Rapid Communication. Luxembourg, Publications Office of the European Union, 2016.Google Scholar

European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction. European Drug Report 2019: Trends and Developments. Luxembourg, Publications Office of the European Union, 2019.Google Scholar

World Drug Report 2019 (United Nations publication, Sales No. E.19.XI.9).Google Scholar

Home Office. Drug Misuse: Findings from the 2017/18 Crime Survey for England and Wales Statistical Bulletin 14/18 July 2018.Google Scholar

UK Focal Point on Drugs: United Kingdom Drug Situation 2017. Available at: https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/713101/Focal_Point_Annual_Report.pdf [last accessed 10 March 2022].Google Scholar

National Advisory Committee on Drugs and Alcohol, & Department of Health Northern Ireland. Prevalence of Drug Use and Gambling in Ireland and Drug Use in Northern Ireland 2014/15. Published 2016.Google Scholar

Scottish Government. Scottish Crime and Justice Survey 2014/15: Drug Use. Published 2016.Google Scholar

Couchman, L, Frinculescu, A, Sobreira, C, et al. Variability in content and dissolution profiles of MDMA tablets collected in the UK between 2001 and 2018 – A potential risk to users? Drug Test Anal 2019;8: 1172–1182.Google Scholar

European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction. European Drug Report 2019: Trends and Developments. Luxembourg, Publications Office of the European Union, 2019.Google Scholar

European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction. Recent changes in Europe’s MDMA/ecstasy market, EMCDDA Rapid Communication. Luxembourg, Publications Office of the European Union, 2016.Google Scholar

European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction. Recent changes in Europe’s MDMA/ecstasy market, EMCDDA Rapid Communication. Luxembourg, Publications Office of the European Union, 2016.Google Scholar

Brunt, TM, Koeter, MW, Niesink, RJ, van den Brink W. Linking the pharmacological content of ecstasy tablets to the subjective experiences of drug users. Psychopharmacology 2012;220(4):751–762. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-011-2529-4Google Scholar

Sherlock, K, Wolff, K, Hay, AW, Conner, M. Analysis of illicit ecstasy tablets: implications for clinical management in the accident and emergency department. J Accid Emerg Med 1999;16(3):194–197.Google Scholar

Morefield, KM. Pill content, dose and resulting plasma concentrations of 3,4-methylendioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) in recreational ‘ecstasy’ users. Addiction 2011;106(7):1293–1300.Google Scholar

Armenian, PT. Multiple MDMA (ecstasy) overdoses at a rave event: a case series. J Intensive Care Med 2013;28(4):252–258.Google Scholar

O’Connor, LC, Torrance, HJ, McKeown, DA, Simpson, K. Analysis of ‘ecstasy’ tablets from Police Scotland in the Glasgow area – November 2013 to July 2014.Google Scholar

Couchman, L, Frinculescu, A, Sobreira, C, et al. Variability in content and dissolution profiles of MDMA tablets collected in the UK between 2001 and 2018 – A potential risk to users? Drug Test Anal 2019;11(8):1172–1182.Google Scholar

Couchman, L, Frinculescu, A, Sobreira, C, et al. Variability in content and dissolution profiles of MDMA tablets collected in the UK between 2001 and 2018 – A potential risk to users? Drug Test Anal 2019;11(8):1172–1182.Google Scholar

Bombe, A, Dave-Momin, N, Shah, N, Sonavane, S, Desousa, A. MDMA dependence: a case report from urban India. History 2013;3(9):32–33.Google Scholar

Potash, MN. Persistent psychosis and medical complications after a single ingestion of MDMA ‘ecstasy’: a case report and review of the literature. Psychiatry 2009;6(7):40.Google Scholar

Rogers, G, Elston, J, Garside, R, et al. The harmful health effects of recreational ecstasy: a systematic review of observational evidence. Health Technol Assess 2009;13(6):iii–v. https://doi.org/10.3310/hta13050Google Scholar

Parrott, AC. Human psychobiology of MDMA or ‘ecstasy’: an overview of 25 years of empirical research. Hum Psychopharmacol 2013;28(4):289–307. https://doi.org/10.1002/hup.2318Google Scholar

Parrott, AC. MDMA, serotonergic neurotoxicity, and the diverse functional deficits of recreational ‘ecstasy’ users. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2013;37(8):1466–1484. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. neubiorev.2013.04.016Google Scholar

Doblin, R, Greer, G, Holland, J, Jerome, L, Mithoefer, MC, Sessa, B. A reconsideration and response to Parrott AC (2013) ‘Human psychobiology of MDMA or “ecstasy”: an overview of 25 years of empirical research’. Hum Psychopharmacol Clin Exp 2014;29:105–108. https://doi.org/10.1002/hup.2389Google Scholar

Cole, JC. MDMA and the ‘ecstasy’ paradigm. J Psychoactive Drugs 2014;46(1):44–56.Google Scholar

See for example: Vizeli, P, Liechti ME. Safety pharmacology of acute MDMA administration in healthy subjects. J Psychopharmacol 2017;31(5):576–588. https://doi.org/10.1177/0269881117691569Google Scholar

De la Torre, RM. Human pharmacology of MDMA: pharmacokinetics, metabolism, and disposition. Ther Drug Monit 2004;26(2):137–144.Google Scholar

Docherty, JR, Green, AR. The role of monoamines in the changes in body temperature induced by 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, ecstasy) and its derivatives. Br J Pharmacol 2010;160(5):1029–1044. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1476-5381.2010.00722.xGoogle Scholar

Hysek, CM, Simmler, LD, Ineichen, M, et al. The norepinephrine transporter inhibitor reboxetine reduces stimulant effects of MDMA (‘ecstasy’) in humans. Clin Pharmacol Ther 2011;90(2):246–255. https://doi.org/10.1038/clpt.2011.78Google Scholar

Roiser, JP. Association of a functional polymorphism in the serotonin transporter gene with abnormal emotional processing in ecstasy users. Am J Psychiatry 2005;162(3):609–612.Google Scholar

Pardo-Lozano, R, Farré, M, Yubero-Lahoz, S, et al. Clinical pharmacology of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, ‘ecstasy’): the influence of gender and genetics (CYP2D6, COMT, 5-HTT). PLoS ONE 2012;7(10):e47599.Google Scholar

Baylen, CA. A review of the acute subjective effects of MDMA/ecstasy. Addiction 2006;101(7):933–947.Google Scholar

Gouzoulis-Mayfrank, E. Differential actions of an entactogen compared to a stimulant and a hallucinogen in healthy humans. Heffter Rev Psychedelic Res 2001;2:64–72.Google Scholar

Shulgin, AT. History of MDMA. In: SJ Peroutka, ed., Ecstasy: The Clinical, Pharmacological and Neurotoxicological Effects of the Drug MDMA, pp. 1–20. Norwell, MA, Kluwer Academic, 1990.Google Scholar

Greer, GR, Tolbert, R. The therapeutic use of MDMA. In: Peroutka, SJ, ed., Ecstasy: The Clinical, Pharmacological and Neurotoxicological Effects of the Drug MDMA, pp. 21–36. Norwell, MA, Kluwer Academic, 1990.Google Scholar

Sessa, B. Is there a case for MDMA-assisted psychotherapy in the UK? J Psychopharmacol 2007;21(2):220–224.Google Scholar

Harris, DS, Baggott, M, Mendelson, JH, Mendelson, JE, Jones, RT. Subjective and hormonal effects of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) in humans. Psychopharmacology 2002;162(4):396–405.Google Scholar

Bershad, AK, Mayo, LM, Van Hedger, K, et al. Effects of MDMA on attention to positive social cues and pleasantness of affective touch. Neuropsychopharmacol 2019;44:1698–1705. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41386-019-0402-zGoogle Scholar

Dumont, GJ. Increased oxytocin concentrations and prosocial feelings in humans after ecstasy (3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine) administration. Social Neurosci 2009;4(4):359–366.Google Scholar

Bershada, AK, Weafer, JJ, Kirkpatrick, MG, Wardle, MC, Miller, MA, de Wita Soc, H. Oxytocin receptor gene variation predicts subjective responses to MDMA. Neuroscience 2016;11(6):592–599. https://doi.org/10.1080/17470919.2016.1143026Google Scholar

Bershada, AK, Weafer, JJ, Kirkpatrick, MG, Wardle, MC, Miller, MA, de Wita Soc, H. Oxytocin receptor gene variation predicts subjective responses to MDMA. Neuroscience 2016;11(6):592–599. https://doi.org/10.1080/17470919.2016.1143026Google Scholar

Peiró, AM. Human pharmacology of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, ecstasy) after repeated doses taken 2 h apart. Psychopharmacology 2013;225(4):883–893.Google Scholar

Yubero-Lahoz, SRM. Sex differences in 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA; ecstasy)-induced cytochrome P450 2D6 inhibition in humans. Clin Pharmacokinet 2011;50(5):319–329.Google Scholar

Green, AR, Mechan, AO, Elliott, JM, O’Shea, E, Colado, MI. The pharmacology and clinical pharmacology of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, ‘ecstasy’). Pharmacol Rev 2003;55(3):463–508.Google Scholar

Parrott, AC, Lock, J, Adnum, L, Thome, J. MDMA can increase cortisol levels by 800% in dance clubbers. J Psychopharmacology 2013;27(1):113–114.Google Scholar

Vevelstad, M, Oiestad, EL, Middelkoop, G, et al. The PMMA epidemic in Norway: comparison of fatal and non-fatal intoxications. Forensic Sci Int 2012;219:151–157.Google Scholar

Lurie, Y, Gopher, A, Lavon, O, Almog, S, Sulimani, L, Bentur, Y. Severe paramethoxymethamphetamine (PMMA) and paramethoxyamphetamine (PMA) outbreak in Israel. Clin Toxicol 2012;50:39–43.Google Scholar

Hill, SL, Thomas, SHL. Clinical toxicology of newer recreational drugs. Clin Toxicol 2011;49:705–719.Google Scholar

Ling, LH, Marchant, C, Buckley, NA, Prior, M, Irvine, RJ. Poisoning with the recreational drug paramethoxyamphetamine (‘death’). Med J Australia 2001;174:453–455.Google Scholar

De Letter, EA, Coopman, VAE, Cordonnier, JACM, Piette, MHA. One fatal and seven non-fatal cases of 4-methylthioamphetamine (4-MTA) intoxication: clinico-pathological findings. Int J Legal Med 2001;114:352–356.Google Scholar

Elliot, SP. Fatal poisoning with a new phenethylamine: 4-methylthioamphetamine (4-MTA). J Anal Toxicol 2000;24:85–89.Google Scholar

Felgate, HE, Felgate, PD, James, RA, Sims, DN, Vozzo, DC. Recent paramethoxyamphetamine deaths. J Anal Toxicol 1998;22:169–172.Google Scholar

Lamberth, PG, Ding, GK, Nurmi, LA. Fatal paramethoxy-amphetamine (PMA) poisoning in the Australian Capital Territory. Med J Australia 2008;188:426.Google Scholar

Daws, LC, Irvine, RJ, Callaghan, PD, Toop, NP, White, JM, Bochner, F. Differential behavioural and neurochemical effects of para-methoxyamphetamine and 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine in the rat. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2000;24:955–977.Google Scholar

Silins, E, Copeland, J, Dillon, P. Qualitative review of serotonin syndrome, ecstasy (MDMA) and the use of other serotonergic substances: hierarchy of risk. Aust NZ J Psychiatry 2007;41(8):649–655.Google Scholar

Corkery, JM, Elliott, S, Schifano, F, Corazza, O, Ghodse, AH. MDAI (5,6-methylenedioxy-2-aminoindane; 6,7-dihydro-5Hcyclopenta[f][1,3]benzodioxol-6-amine; ‘sparkle’; ‘mindy’) toxicity: a brief overview and update. Hum Psychopharmacol Clin Exp 2013;28:345–355.Google Scholar

Brandt, SD, Sumnall, HR, Measham, F, Cole, J. Analyses of second generation ‘legal highs’ in the UK: initial findings. Drug Test Anal 2010;2(8):377–382.Google Scholar

Greer, GR, Tolbert, R. A method of conducting therapeutic sessions with MDMA. J Psychoactive Drugs 1998;30(4):371–379.Google Scholar

Mithoefer, MC, Wagner, MT, Mithoefer, AT, et al. Durability of improvement in post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms and absence of harmful effects or drug dependency after 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine-assisted psychotherapy: a prospective long-term follow-up study. J Psychopharmacol 2013;27(1):28–39. https://doi.org/10.1177/0269881112456611Google Scholar

Johansen, PØ, Krebs, TS. How could MDMA (ecstasy) help anxiety disorders? A neurobiological rationale. J Psychopharmacol 2009;23(4):389–391. https://doi.org/10.1177/0269881109102787Google Scholar

Parrott, AC. The potential dangers of using MDMA for psychotherapy. J Psychoactive Drugs 2014;46(1):37–43.Google Scholar

Capela, JP. Molecular and cellular mechanisms of ecstasy-induced neurotoxicity: an overview. Mol Neurobiol 2009;39(3):210–271.Google Scholar

Sessa, B, Higbed, L, Nutt, D. A review of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA)-assisted psychotherapy. Front Psychiatry 2019 (online). https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00138Google Scholar

Feduccia, AA, Holland, J, Mithoefer, MC. Progress and promise for the MDMA drug development program. Psychopharmacology 2018;235(2):561–571. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-017-4779-2Google Scholar

Mithoefer, MC, Mithoefe, AT, Feduccia, AA, et al.3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA)-assisted psychotherapy for post-traumatic stress disorder in military veterans, firefighters, and police officers: a randomised, double-blind, dose-response, phase 2 clinical trial. Lancet Psychiatry 2018;5(6):486–497.Google Scholar

Sessa, B. MDMA and PTSD treatment: ‘PTSD: from novel pathophysiology to innovative therapeutics’. Neurosci Lett 2017;649:176–180.Google Scholar

Ot’alora, MG, Grigsby, J, Poulter, B, et al.3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine-assisted psychotherapy for treatment of chronic post-traumatic stress disorder: a randomized phase 2 controlled trial. J Psychopharmacol 2018;32(12):1295–1307.Google Scholar

Bouso, JC, Doblin, R, Farre, M, et al. MDMA-assisted psychotherapy using low doses in a small sample of women with chronic post-traumatic stress disorder. J Psychoactive Drugs 2008;40:225–236.Google Scholar

Greer, GR, Tolbert, R. A method of conducting therapeutic sessions with MDMA. J Psychoactive Drugs 1998;30:371–379.Google Scholar

Thal, SB, Lommen, MJJ. Current perspective on MDMA-assisted psychotherapy for posttraumatic stress disorder. J Contemp Psychother 2018;48:99–108. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10879-017-9379-2Google Scholar

Oehen, PR. A randomized, controlled pilot study of MDMA (±3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine)-assisted psychotherapy for treatment of resistant, chronic post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). J Psychopharmacol 2013;27(1):40–52.Google Scholar

Barone, W, Beck, J, Mitsunaga-Whitten, M, Perl, P. Perceived benefits of MDMA-assisted psychotherapy beyond symptom reduction: qualitative follow-up study of a clinical trial for individuals with treatment-resistant PTSD. J Psychoactive Drugs 2019;51(2):199–208. https://doi.org/10.1080/02791072.2019.1580805Google Scholar

Bahji, A, , Forsyth, A, Groll, D, Hawken, ER. Efficacy of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA)-assisted psychotherapy for post-traumatic stress disorder: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2020;96:109735.Google Scholar

Schenk, S, Newcombe, D. Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) in psychiatry: pros, cons, and suggestions. J Clin Psychopharmacol 2018;38(6):632–638. https://doi.org/10.1097/JCP.0000000000000962Google Scholar

Danforth, AL, Grob, CS, Struble, C, et al. Reduction in social anxiety after MDMA-assisted psychotherapy with autistic adults: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled pilot study Psychopharmacology 2018;235(11):3137–3148. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-018-5010-9Google Scholar

Sessa, B. Why MDMA therapy for alcohol use disorder? Neuropharmacology 2018;142:83–88. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropharm.2017.11.004Google Scholar

Concar, D. Ecstasy has dramatic effect on Parkinson’s symptoms. New Scientist 2002;17(2368):14.Google Scholar

Johnston, TH, Millar, Z, Huot, P, et al. A novel MDMA analogue, UWA-101, that lacks psychoactivity and cytotoxicity, enhances l-DOPA benefit in parkinsonian primates. FASEB J 2012;26(5):2154–2163. https://doi.org/10.1096/fj.11-195016Google Scholar

Moonzwe, LS, Schensul, JJ, Kostick, KM. The role of MDMA (ecstasy) in coping with negative life situations among urban young adults. J Psychoactive Drugs 2011;43(3):199–210.Google Scholar

Jansen, KLR. Ecstasy (MDMA) dependence. Drug Alcohol Depend 1999;53(2):121–124.Google Scholar

Sessa, B. Can psychedelics have a role in psychiatry once again? Br J Psychiatry 2005;186(6):457–458.Google Scholar

McElrath, K, Van Hout, MC. A preference for mephedrone: drug markets, drugs of choice, and the emerging ‘legal high’ scene. J Drug Issues 2011;41(4):487–507.Google Scholar

European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA). European Drug Report. Trends and Developments 2015. Luxembourg, Publications Office of the European Union, 2015. Available at: www.emcdda.europa.eu/system/files/publications/2637/TDAT16001ENN.pdf [last accessed 10 March 2022].Google Scholar

European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA). Recent changes in Europe’s MDMA/ecstasy market. Results from an EMCDDA trendspotter study. Luxembourg, Publications Office of the European Union, 2016b. Available at: www.emcdda.europa.eu/system/files/publications/2473/TD0116348ENN.pdf [last accessed 10 March 2022].Google Scholar

Edland-Gryta M, , Sandberg S, , Pedersen W. From ecstasy to MDMA: recreational drug use, symbolic boundaries, and drug trends. Int J Drug Policy 2017;50:1–8.Google Scholar

Home Office. Drugs Misuse: Findings from the 2018/19 Crime Survey for England and Wales Statistical Bulletin. Published September 2019.Google Scholar

European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction. Recent changes in Europe’s MDMA/ecstasy market, EMCDDA Rapid Communication. Luxembourg, Publications Office of the European Union, 2016.Google Scholar

European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction. European Drug Report 2019: Trends and Developments. Luxembourg, Publications Office of the European Union, 2019.Google Scholar

European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction. European Drug Report 2019: Trends and Developments. Luxembourg, Publications Office of the European Union, 2019.Google Scholar

European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction. European Drug Report 2019: Trends and Developments. Luxembourg, Publications Office of the European Union, 2019.Google Scholar

European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction. European Drug Report 2019: Trends and Developments. Luxembourg, Publications Office of the European Union, 2019.Google Scholar

Palamar, JJ, Acosta, P, Omp, DC, Cleland, CM. Self-reported ecstasy/MDMA/‘Molly’ use in a sample of nightclub and dance festival attendees in New York City. Subst Use Misuse 2017;52(1):82–91. https://doi.org/10.1080/10826084.2016.1219373Google Scholar

Hansen, DB. ‘Weddings, parties, anything…’: a qualitative analysis of ecstasy use in Perth, Western Australia. Int J Drug Policy 2001;12(2):181–199.Google Scholar

Halpern, P, Moskovich, J, Avrahami, B, Bentur, Y, Soffer, D, Peleg, K. Morbidity associated with MDMA (ecstasy) abuse – a survey of emergency department admissions. Hum Exp Toxicol 2011;30(4):259–266. https://doi.org/10.1177/0960327110370984Google Scholar

Horyniak, D, Degenhardt, L, Smit de, V, et al. Pattern and characteristics of ecstasy and related drug (ERD) presentations at two hospital emergency departments, Melbourne, Australia, 2008–2010. Emerg Med J 2014;31(4):317–322. https://doi.org/10.1136/emermed2012-202174Google Scholar

European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction. European Drug Report 2019: Trends and Developments. Luxembourg, Publications Office of the European Union, 2019.Google Scholar

Mounteney, J, Griffiths, P, Bo, A, Cunningham, A, Matias, J, Pirona, A. Nine reasons why ecstasy is not quite what it used to be. Int J Drug Policy 2018;51:36–41.Google Scholar

Pearson, G. Normal drug use: ethnographic fieldwork among an adult network of recreational drug users in inner London. Subst Use Misuse 2001;36(1–2):167–200.Google Scholar

Winstock, A. The Global Drug Survey 2014 Findings. Global Drug Survey, April 2014. Available at: www.globaldrugsurvey.com/facts-figures/the-global-drug-survey-2014-findings [last accessed 10 March 2022].Google Scholar

Jansen, KLR. Ecstasy (MDMA) dependence. Drug Alcohol Depend 1999;53(2):121–124.Google Scholar

Topp, L, Hando, J, Dillon, P, Roche, A, Solowij, N. Ecstasy use in Australia: patterns of use and associated harm. Drug Alcohol Depend 1999;55:105–115.Google Scholar

Carhart-Harris, RL, Murphy, K, Leech, R, et al. The effects of acutely administered 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine on spontaneous brain function in healthy volunteers measured with arterial spin labeling and blood oxygen level-dependent resting state functional connectivity. Biol Psychiatry 2014;2014:S0006-3223(14) 00005-5. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. biopsych.2013.12.015Google Scholar

Scholey, AB, Parrott, AC, Buchanan, T, Heffernan, TM, Ling, J, Rodgers, J. Increased intensity of ecstasy and polydrug usage in the more experienced recreational ecstasy/MDMA users: a WWW study. Addict Behav 2004;29(4):743–752.Google Scholar

Wu, L-TA. The variety of ecstasy/MDMA users: results from the National Epidemiologic Survey on alcohol and related conditions. Am J Addictions 2009;18(6):452–461.Google Scholar

Palamar, JJ, Acosta, P, Omp, DC, Cleland, CM. Self-reported ecstasy/MDMA/‘Molly’ use in a sample of nightclub and dance festival attendees in New York City. Subst Use Misuse 2017;52(1):82–91. https://doi.org/10.1080/10826084.2016.1219373Google Scholar

Kinner, SA, George, J, Johnston, J, Dunn, M, Degenhardt, L. Pills and pints: risky drinking and alcohol-related harms among regular ecstasy users in Australia. Drug Alcohol Rev 2012;31:273–280.Google Scholar

Hopper, JW. Incidence and patterns of polydrug use and craving for ecstasy in regular ecstasy users: an ecological momentary assessment study. Drug Alcohol Depend 2006;85(3):221–235.Google Scholar

Hall, AP, Henry, JA. Acute toxic effects of ‘ecstasy’ (MDMA) and related compounds: overview of pathophysiology and clinical management. Br J Anaesthesia 2006;96(6):678–685.Google Scholar

Benschop, A, Urbán, R, Kapitány-Fövény, M, et al. Why do people use new psychoactive substances? Development of a new measurement tool in six European countries. J Psychopharmacol 2020;34(6):600–611. https://doi.org/10.1177/0269881120904951Google Scholar

Winstock, A. Drug Pleasure Ratings. Global Drug Survey, April 2014. Available at: www.globaldrugsurvey.com/facts-figures/the-net-pleasure-index-results [last accessed 10 March 2022].Google Scholar

ter Bogt, TF, Engels, RC. ‘Partying’ hard: party style, motives for and effects of MDMA use at rave parties. Subst Use Misuse 2005;40(9–10):1479–1502.Google Scholar

Kamilar-Britt, P, Bedi, G. The prosocial effects of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA): controlled studies in humans and laboratory animals. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2015;57:433–446.Google Scholar

Bershad, AK, Miller, MA, Baggott, MJ, de Wit, H. The effects of MDMA on socio-emotional processing: does MDMA differ from other stimulants? J Psychopharmacol 2016;30(12):1–11. https://doi.org/10.1177/0269881116663120Google Scholar

Dolder, PC, Müller, F, Schmid, Y, Borgwardt, SJ, Liecht ME. Direct comparison of the acute subjective, emotional, autonomic, and endocrine effects of MDMA, methylphenidate, and modafinil in healthy subjects. Psychopharmacology 2018;235:467–479. https://dooi.org/10.1007/s00213-017-4650-5Google Scholar

Zemishlany, ZD. Subjective effects of MDMA (‘ecstasy’) on human sexual function. Eur Psychiatry 2001;16(2):127–130.Google Scholar

Kennedy, KE. Ecstasy and sex among young heterosexual women: a qualitative analysis of sensuality, sexual effects, and sexual risk taking. Int J Sex Health 2010;22(3):155–166.Google Scholar

Passie, T, Hartmann, U, Schneider, U, Emrich, HM, Krüger, TH. Ecstasy (MDMA) mimics the postorgasmic state: impairment of sexual drive and function during acute MDMA-effects may be due to increased prolactin secretion. Med Hypotheses 2005;64(5):899–903.Google Scholar

Bourne, ARD. The chemsex study: drug use in sexual settings among gay and bisexual men in Lambeth, Southwark and Lewisham, London. Sigma Research, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, 2014.Google Scholar

Vizeli, P, Liechti, M E. Safety pharmacology of acute MDMA administration in healthy subjects. J Psychopharmacol 2017;31(5):576–588. https://doi.org/10.1177/0269881117691569Google Scholar

Papaseit, E, Torrens, M, Pérez-Mañá, C, Muga, R, Farré, M. Key interindividual determinants in MDMA pharmacodynamics. Exp Opin Drug Metab Toxicol 2018;14(2):183–195. https://doi.org/10.1080/17425255.2018.1424832Google Scholar

Coppola, M, Mondola, R. Is the 5-iodo-2-aminoindan (5-IAI) the new MDMA? J Addict Res Ther 2012;3:134.Google Scholar

Nichols, DE, Oberlender, R. Structure-activity relationships of MDMA and related compounds: a new class of psychoactive drugs? Ann NY Acad Sci 1990;600(1):613–623.Google Scholar

Simmler, LD, Liechti, ME. Pharmacology of MDMA- and amphetamine-like new psychoactive substances. In: Maurer, H, Brandt, S, (eds.), New Psychoactive Substances. Handbook of Experimental Pharmacology, vol. 252. Cham, Springer, 2018.Google Scholar

Raznahan, M, Hassanzadeh, E, Houshmand, A, Kashani, L, Tabrizi, M, Akhondzadeh, S. Change in frequency of acute and subacute effects of ecstasy in a group of novice users after 6 months of regular use. Psychiatr Danub 2013;25(2):175–178.Google Scholar

Parrott, AC. Recreational ecstasy/MDMA, the serotonin syndrome, and serotonergic neurotoxicity. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2002;71(4):837–844.Google Scholar

Fuit, S, Brookhuis, A, Karel, C et al. Physical, affective and somatic effects of ecstasy (MDMA): an observational study of recreational users. Curr Psychopharmacol 2017;6(1):51–58.Google Scholar

O’Sullivan, A, Parrott, AC. Deteriorating cost–benefit ratios for ecstasy/MDMA with repeated usage. Open Addiction J 2011;4:38–39.Google Scholar

Young, SN, Regoli, M, Leyton, M, Pihl, RO, Benkelfat, C. The effect of acute tryptophan depletion on mood and impulsivity in polydrug ecstasy users. Psychopharmacology 2014;231(4):707–716. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-013-3287-2Google Scholar

Travers, KR, Lyvers, M. Mood and impulsivity of recreational ecstasy users in the week following a ‘rave’. Addict Res Theory 2005;13(1):43–52.Google Scholar

European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction. Recent changes in Europe’s MDMA/ecstasy market, EMCDDA Rapid Communication. Luxembourg, Publications Office of the European Union, 2016.Google Scholar

Al-Samarraie, MS, Vevelstad, M, Nygaard, IL, Bachs, L, Mørland, J. Intoxation with paramethoxymethamphetamine. [Article in Norwegian.] Tidsskr Nor Laegeforen 2013;133(9):966–999. https://doi.org/10.4045/tidsskr.12.0417Google Scholar

Shulgin, AT, Shulgin, A. 4-MA; PMA; 4-methoxyamphetamine. In: PIHKAL: A Chemical Love Story (Monograph 97), pp. 707–709. Liverpool, Transform Press, 1991.Google Scholar

Shulgin, AT, Shulgin, A. 4-MA; PMA; 4-methoxyamphetamine. In: PIHKAL: A Chemical Love Story (Monograph 97), pp. 707–709. Liverpool, Transform Press, 1991.Google Scholar

Figurasin R, Maguire NJ. 3,4-Methylenedioxy-Methamphetamine (MDMA, Ecstasy, Molly) Toxicity. [Updated 2019 May 11]. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL), StatPearls Publishing, 2019. Available at: www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538482/ [last accessed 10 March 2022].Google Scholar

Rigg, KK, Sharp, A. Deaths related to MDMA (ecstasy/molly): prevalence, root causes, and harm reduction interventions. J Subst Use 2018;23(4):345–352. https://doi.org/10.1080/14659891.2018.1436607Google Scholar

Roxburgh, A, Lappin, J. MDMA-related deaths in Australia 2000 to 2018. Int J Drug Policy 2020;76:102630.Google Scholar

Drugscope. Business as Usual? A Status Report on New Psychoactive Substances (NPS) and Club Drugs in the UK. Published 2014.Google Scholar

Cimbura, G. PMA deaths in Ontario. Can Med Assoc J 1974;110(11):1263.Google Scholar

Office for National Statistics. Deaths Related to Drug Poisoning in England and Wales, 2013. Published 2014. Available at: www.ons.gov.uk/ons/dcp171778_375498.pdf [last accessed 10 March 2022].Google Scholar

European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction. Recent changes in Europe’s MDMA/ecstasy market, EMCDDA Rapid Communication. Luxembourg, Publications Office of the European Union, 2016.Google Scholar

See for example: Darracq, MA, Thornton, SL, Minns, AB, Gerona, RR. A case of 3,4-dimethoxyamphetamine (3,4-DMA) and 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) toxicity with possible metabolic interaction. J Psychoactive Drugs 2016;48(5):351–354. https://doi.org/10.1080/02791072.2016.1225324Google Scholar

Rosenson, J, Smollin, C, Sporer, KA, Blanc, P, Olson, KR. Patterns of ecstasy-associated hyponatremia in California. Ann Emerg Med 2007;49(2):164–171.Google Scholar

Williams, H, Dratcu, L, Taylor, R, Roberts, M, Oyefeso, A. ‘Saturday night fever’: ecstasy-related problems in a London accident and emergency department. J Accid Emerg Med 1998;15(5):322–326.Google Scholar

Liechti, ME, Kunz, I, Kupferschmidt, H. Acute medical problems due to ecstasy use. Swiss Med Wkly 2005;135(43–44):652–657.Google Scholar

Simmler, LD, Liechti, ME. Pharmacology of MDMA- and amphetamine-like new psychoactive substances. In: Maurer, H, Brandt, S (eds.), New Psychoactive Substances. Handbook of Experimental Pharmacology, vol. 252. Cham, Springer, 2018.Google Scholar

Degenhardt, L, Hall, W. The Health and Psychological Effects of ‘Ecstasy’ (MDMA) Use. National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, University of New South Wales, 2010.Google Scholar

Cajanding, RJM. MDMA-associated liver toxicity: pathophysiology, management, and current state of knowledge. AACN Adv Crit Care 2019;30(3):232–248. https://doi.org/10.4037/aacnacc2019852Google Scholar

Refstad, S. Paramethoxyamphetamine (PMA) poisoning: a ‘party drug’ with lethal effects. Acta Anaesthesiologica Scand 2003;47:1298–1299. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1399-6576.2003.00245.xGoogle Scholar

Giannikopoulos, G, Stamoulis, I, Panagi, G, et al. P0494 severe hypoglycaemia, acute renal failure and rhabdomyolysis associated with the use of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (‘ecstasy’). Eur J Intern Med 2009;20:S164.Google Scholar

Raviña, P, Quiroga, JM, Raviña, T. Hyperkalemia in fatal MDMA (‘ecstasy’) toxicity. Int J Cardiol 2004;93(2):307–308.Google Scholar

Greene, SL, Dargan, PI, O’Connor, N, Jones, AL, Kerins, M. Multiple toxicity from 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (‘ecstasy’). Am J Emerg Med 2003;21(2):121–124.Google Scholar

Moore, K, Wells, H, Feilding, A. Roadmaps to regulation: MDMA. Br J Sociol 2002;53(1):89–105.Google Scholar

Fineschi, V, Masti, A. Fatal poisoning by MDMA (ecstasy) and MDEA: a case report. Int J Legal Med 1996;108(5):272–275.Google Scholar

Liechti, ME, Gamma, A, Vollenweider, FX. Gender differences in the subjective effects of MDMA. Psychopharmacology 2001;154(2):161–168.Google Scholar

Feio-Azevedo, R, Costa, VM, Barbosa, DJ, et al. Aged rats are more vulnerable than adolescents to ‘ecstasy’-induced toxicity. Arch Toxicol 2018;92:2275–2295. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00204-018-2226-8Google Scholar

Gouzoulis-Mayfrank, E. The confounding problem of polydrug use in recreational ecstasy/MDMA users: a brief overview. J Psychopharmacol 2006;20(2):188–193.Google Scholar

Milroy, CM. ‘Ecstasy’-associated deaths: what is a fatal concentration? Analysis of a case series. Forensic Sci Med Pathol 2011;7(3):248–252.Google Scholar

Vecellio, M, Schopper, C, Modestin, J. Neuropsychiatric consequences (atypical psychosis and complex-partial seizures) of ecstasy use: possible evidence for toxicity-vulnerability predictors and implications for preventative and clinical care. J Psychopharmacol 2003;17(3):342–345.Google Scholar

Kamour, A, James, D, Lupton, DJ, et al. Patterns of presentation and clinical features of toxicity after reported use of ([2-aminopropyl]-2,3-dihydrobenzofurans), the ‘benzofuran’ compounds. A report from the United Kingdom National Poisons Information Service. Clin Toxicol 2014;52(10):1025–1031. https://doi.org/10.3109/15563650.2014.973115Google Scholar

Lin, DL, Liu, HC, Yin HL. Recent paramethoxymethamphetamine (PMMA) deaths in Taiwan. J Anal Toxicol 2007;31(2):109–113.Google Scholar

Gimeno Clemente, C, Chiappini, S, Claridge, H, et al. The unregulated psychoactive compound: ‘benzo fury’. Curr Drug Abuse Rev 2013;6(4):285.Google Scholar

Chan, WL, Wood, DM, Hudson, S, Dargan, PI. Acute psychosis associated with recreational use of benzofuran 6-(2-aminopropyl) benzofuran (6-APB) and cannabis. J Med Toxicol 2013;9(3):278–281. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13181-013-0306-yGoogle Scholar

Weinmann, W, Bohnert, M. Lethal monointoxication by overdosage of MDEA. Forensic Sci Int 1998;91(2):91–101.Google Scholar

Chen, WH, Chui, C, Yin, HL. The antemortem neurobehavior in fatal paramethoxymethamphetamine usage. Subst Abus 2012;33(4):366–372.Google Scholar

Spatt, J, Glawar, B, Mamoli, B. A pure amnestic syndrome after MDMA (‘ecstasy’) ingestion. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1997;62(4):418.Google Scholar

Meehan, TJ, Bryant, SM, Aks, SE. Drugs of abuse: the highs and lows of altered mental states in the emergency department. Emerg Med Clin North Am 2010;28(3):663–682. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. emc.2010.03.012Google Scholar

TOXBASE®. MDMA. www.toxbase.orgGoogle Scholar

Drake, WM, Broadhurst, PA. QT-interval prolongation with ecstasy. South African Med J 1996;86(2):180–181.Google Scholar

Hartung, TK, Schofield, E, Short, AI, Parr, MJA, Henry, JA. Hyponatraemic states following 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, ‘ecstasy’) ingestion. Q J Med 2002;95:431–437.Google Scholar

Dowling, GP, McDonough, ET, Bost, RO. ‘Eve’ and ‘ecstasy’: a report of five deaths associated with the use of MDEA and MDMA. JAMA 1987;257(12):1615–1617.Google Scholar

Madhok, A, Boxer, R, Chowdhury, D. Atrial fibrillation in an adolescent – the agony of ecstasy. Pediatr Emerg Care 2003;19(5):348–349.Google Scholar

Qasim, A, Townend, J, Davies, MK. Ecstasy-induced acute myocardial infarction. Heart 2001;85(6):e10.Google Scholar

Mutlu, H, Silit, E, Pekkafali, Z, Incedayi, M, Basekim, C, Kizilkaya, E. ‘Ecstasy’ (MDMA)-induced pneumomediastinum and epidural pneumatosis. Diagn Interv Radiol 2005;11(3):150–151.Google Scholar

Gungadeen, A, Moor, J. Extensive subcutaneous emphysema and pneumomediastinum after ecstasy ingestion. Case Rep Otolaryngol 2013;2013:795867. https://doi.org/10.1155/2013/795867Google Scholar

Clause, AL, Coche, E, Hantson, P, Jacquet, LM. Spontaneous pneumomediastinum and epidural pneumatosis after oral ecstasy consumption. Acta Clinica Belgica 2014;69(2):146–148.Google Scholar

James, RA, Dinan, A. Hyperpyrexia associated with fatal paramethoxyamphetamine (PMA) abuse. Med Sci Law 1998;38(1):83–88.Google Scholar

Els, A, Coopman, VAE, Cordonnier, JACM, Piette, MHA, Chemiphar, NV. One fatal and seven nonfatal cases of 4-methylthioamphetamine (4-MTA) intoxication: clinico-pathological findings. In: A Els, Investigation of Fatalities Related to the Use of 3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, ‘Ecstasy’) and Analogues: Anatomo-Pathological and Thanato-Toxicological Approach. PhD thesis, University of Ghent, 2002. Available at: http://lib.ugent.be/fulltxt/RUG01/000/745/574/RUG01-000745574_2010_0001_AC.pdf [last accessed 11 March 2022].Google Scholar

Pearson, JM, Hargraves, TL, Hair, LS, et al. Three fatal intoxications due to methylone. J Anal Toxicol 2012;36(6):444–451. https://doi.org/10.1093/jat/bks043Google Scholar

Campbell, GA, Rosner, MH. The agony of ecstasy: MDMA (3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine) and the kidney. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 2008;3(6):1852–1860. https://doi.org/10.2215/CJN.02080508Google Scholar

Watson, JD. Exertional heat stroke induced by amphetamine analogues. Anaesthesia 1993;48(12):1057–1060.Google Scholar

Parrott, AC. MDMA (3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine) or ecstasy: the neuropsychobiological implications of taking it at dances and raves. Neuropsychobiology 2004;50(4):329–335.Google Scholar

Kiyatkin, EA. Critical role of peripheral vasoconstriction in fatal brain hyperthermia induced by MDMA (ecstasy) under conditions that mimic human drug use. J Neurosci 2014;34(23):7754–7762.Google Scholar

Chen, Y, Tran, HTN, Saber, YH, Hall, FS. High ambient temperature increases the toxicity and lethality of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine and methcathinone. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2020;192:172912. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pbb.2020.172912Google Scholar

Green, AR. A review of the mechanisms involved in the acute MDMA (ecstasy)-induced hyperthermic response. Eur J Pharmacol 2004;500(1):3–13.Google Scholar

Hunt, PA. Heat illness. J R Army Med Corps 2005;151(4):234–242.Google Scholar

Schütte, JK, Schäfer, U, Becker, S, et al. 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine induces a hyperthermic and hypermetabolic crisis in pigs with and without a genetic disposition for malignant hyperthermia. Eur J Anaesthesiol 2013;30(1):29–37. https://doi.org/10.1097/EJA.0b013e32835a1127Google Scholar

Fritz-Patrick, J, Pineau Mitchell, A, Auzinger, G. Too hot to handle: a case report of extreme pyrexia after MDMA ingestion. Ther Hypothermia Temp Manag 2018;8(3):173–175. https://doi.org/10.1089/ther.2018.0002Google Scholar

Pilgrim, JL. Deaths involving MDMA and the concomitant use of pharmaceutical drugs. J Analytic Toxicol 2011;35(4):219–226.Google Scholar

Copeland, JP. Ecstasy and the concomitant use of pharmaceuticals. Addict Behav 2006;31(2):367–370.Google Scholar

Pilgrim, JL. Serotonin toxicity involving MDMA (ecstasy) and moclobemide. Forensic Sci Int 2012;215(1):184–188.Google Scholar

Advisory Council on the Misuse of Drugs (ACMD). Benzofurans: A Review of the Evidence of Use and Harm. Published 2013. Available at: https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/261783/Benzofuran_compounds_report.pdf [last accessed 23 April 2022].Google Scholar

Kraner, JC, McCoy, DJ, Evans, MA, Evans, LE, Sweeney, BJ. Fatalities caused by the MDMA-related drug paramethoxyamphetamine (PMA). J Anal Toxicol 2001;25(7):645–648.Google Scholar

Baggott, MJ, Garrison, KJ, Coyle, JR, et al. MDMA impairs response to water intake in healthy volunteers. Adv Pharmacol Sci 2016;2016:2175896. https://doi.org/10.1155/2016/2175896Google Scholar

Simmler, LD, Hysek, CM, Liechti, ME. Sex differences in the effects of MDMA (ecstasy) on plasma copeptin in healthy subjects. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2011;96(9):2844–2850. https://doi.org/10.1210/ jc.2011-1143Google Scholar

Finch, EL. Cerebral oedema after MDMA (‘ecstasy’) and unrestricted water intake. Drug workers emphasise that water is not an antidote to drug.Br Med J 1996;313(7058):690.Google Scholar

Chang, JCYC. Late diagnosis of MDMA-related severe hyponatremia. Case Rep Intern Med 2014;1(2):153.Google Scholar

Virani, S, Daya, GN, Brainch, N, et al. Persistent psychosis due to single dose of ecstasy. Cureus 2018;10(7):e3058. https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.3058Google Scholar

Van Kampen, J. Persistent psychosis after a single ingestion of ‘ecstasy’. Psychosomatics 2001;42(6):525–527.Google Scholar