Skip to main content Accessibility help
×
Hostname: page-component-848d4c4894-nmvwc Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-06-19T16:10:16.316Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Chapter 8B - Amphetamine-type Stimulants: An Overview

from Part III - Drugs with Primarily Stimulant Effects

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  06 October 2022

Dima Abdulrahim
Affiliation:
Programme Manager and Principal Researcher for the NEPTUNE Project, Central and North West London NHS Foundation Trust
Owen Bowden-Jones
Affiliation:
Consultant Addiction Psychiatrist, Central and North West London NHS Foundation Trust
Get access

Summary

Amphetamine-type stimulants (ATS) are world-wide the second most popular group of drugs after cannabis (UNODC, 2019)23 and a significant proportion of NPS with stimulant effects are ATS.

The World Health Organization (WHO) defines amphetamine-type stimulants (ATS) as a group of drugs whose principal members include amphetamine and methamphetamine. A range of other substances also fall into this group, such as methcathinone, ephedrine, pseudoephedrine, methylphenidate and 3,4-methylenedioxy-methamphetamine(MDMA).

Globally, seizures of ATS increased sharply from the second half of the 1990s until 2001 and over the period 2009–2017.24 The largest number of seizures in the past few years have been methamphetamine, followed by amphetamine, ‘ecstasy’ type substances, other stimulants (MDPV, methcathinone, methylone, several other cathinones, dimethoxyamphetamine and several piperazines) and prescription stimulants.

Type
Chapter
Information
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2022

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

World Drug Report 2020 (United Nations publication, Sales No. E.20.XI.6).Google Scholar
World Drug Report 2020 (United Nations publication, Sales No. E.20.XI.6).Google Scholar
Srisurapanont, M, Jarusuraisin, N, Kittirattanapaiboon, P. Treatment for amphetamine dependence and abuse (review). Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2001;(4):CD003022. Review update in: Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2014;4:CD003022.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Altman, J, Everitt, BJ, Glautier, S, et al. The biological, social and clinical bases of drug addiction: commentary and debate. Psychopharmacology 1996;125(4):285345.Google Scholar
Ellinwood, Jr EH, Petrie, WM. Dependence on amphetamine, cocaine, and other stimulants. In: Pradhan, SN, Dutta, SN, eds. Drug Abuse: Clinical and Basic Aspects, pp. 248262. St. Louis, MO, CV Mosby, 1977.Google Scholar
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. Early Warning Advisory on New Psychoactive Substances. Available at: www.unodc.org/LSS/Page/NPS [last accessed 25 April 2022].Google Scholar
World Drug Report 2019 (United Nations publication, Sales No. E.19.XI.9).Google Scholar
Miliano, C, Serpelloni, G, Rimondo, C, Mereu, M, Marti, M, De Luca, AM. Neuropharmacology of new psychoactive substances (NPS): focus on the rewarding and reinforcing properties of cannabimimetics and amphetamine-like stimulants. Front Neurosci 2016 (online). https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2016.00153CrossRefGoogle Scholar
World Drug Report 2019 (United Nations publication, Sales No. E.19.XI.9).Google Scholar
World Drug Report 2020 (United Nations publication, Sales No. E.20.XI.6).Google Scholar
Miliano, C, Serpelloni, G, Rimondo, C, Mereu, M, Marti, M, De Luca, AM. Neuropharmacology of new psychoactive substances (NPS): focus on the rewarding and reinforcing properties of cannabimimetics and amphetamine-like stimulants. Front Neurosci 2016 (online). https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2016.00153Google Scholar
European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction. European Drug Report 2019: Trends and Developments. Luxembourg, Publications Office of the European Union, 2019.Google Scholar
Kapitány-Fövény, M, Rácz, J. Synthetic cannabinoid and synthetic cathinone use in Hungary: a literature review. Dev Health Sci 2018;1(3): 6369. https://doi.org/10.1556/2066.2.2018.18Google Scholar
McAule A, Palmateer NE, Goldberg DJ, et al. Re-emergence of HIV related to injecting drug use despite a comprehensive harm reduction environment: a cross-sectional analysis. Lancet HIV 201;6(5):e315–e324.Google Scholar
European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction. Drugs in Syringes from Six European Cities: Results from the ESCAPE Project 2017. Luxembourg, Publications Office of the European Union, 2019.Google Scholar
European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction. Drug-related Infectious Diseases in Europe: Update from the EMCDDA expert network. Luxembourg, Publications Office of the European Union, 2019.Google Scholar
European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction. European Drug Report 2019: Trends and Developments. Luxembourg, Publications Office of the European Union, 2019.Google Scholar
Tarján, A, Dudás, M, Gyarmathy, VA, Rusvai, E, Tresó, B, Csohán, Á. Emerging risks due to new injecting patterns in Hungary during austerity times. Subst Use Misuse 2015;50(7):848858.Google Scholar
Giese, C, Igoe, D, Gibbons, Z, et al. Injection of new psychoactive substance snow blow associated with recently acquired HIV infections among homeless people who inject drugs in Dublin, Ireland. Eurosurveillance 2015;20(40):30036. https://doi.org/10.2807/1560-7917.ES.2015.20.40.30036Google Scholar
European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction. Drug-related Infectious Diseases in Europe: Update from the EMCDDA expert network. Luxembourg, Publications Office of the European Union, 2019.Google Scholar
European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction. European Drug Report 2019: Trends and Developments. Luxembourg, Publications Office of the European Union, 2019.Google Scholar
European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction. Drug-related Infectious Diseases in Europe: Update from the EMCDDA expert network. Luxembourg, Publications Office of the European Union, 2019.Google Scholar
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. World Drug Report 2019. Vienna, Austria, UNODC, 2019.Google Scholar
World Drug Report 2019 (United Nations publication, Sales No. E.19.XI.9).Google Scholar
Carvalho, M, Carmo, H, Costa, VM, et al. Toxicity of amphetamines: an update. Arch Toxicol 2012;86(8):11671231. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00204-012-0815-5CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kraemer, T, Maurer, HH. Toxicokinetics of amphetamines: metabolism and toxicokinetic data of designer drugs, amphetamine, methamphetamine, and their N-alkyl derivatives. Ther Drug Monit 2002;24(2):277279.Google Scholar
de la Torre, R, Farre, M, Navarro, M, Pacifici, R, Zuccaro, P, Pichini, S. Clinical pharmacokinetics of amphetamine and related substances: monitoring in conventional and non-conventional matrices. Clin Pharmacokinet 2004;43(3):157185.Google Scholar
Glennon, RA, Young, R, Dukat, M, Cheng, Y. Initial characterization of PMMA as a discriminative stimulus. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 1997;57(1–2):151158.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Carroll, FI, Lewin, AH, Mascarella, SW, Seltzman, HH, Reddy, PA. Designer drugs: a medicinal chemistry perspective. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2012;1248:1838. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-6632.2011.06199.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Luethia, D, Kolaczynska, KE, Doccia, L, Krähenbühla, S, Hoenerb, MC, Liechtia, ME. Pharmacological profile of mephedrone analogs and related new psychoactive substances. Neuropharmacology 2018;134(Part A):412 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropharm.2017.07.026Google Scholar
Iversen, LL. Speed, Ecstasy, Ritalin: The Science of Amphetamines. Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2006.Google Scholar
Castells, X, Blanco-Silvente, L, Cunill, R. Amphetamines for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in adults. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2018;8:CD007813. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD007813.pub3Google Scholar
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. World Drug Report, Booklet 4, Stimulants. World Drug Report 2019 (United Nations publication, Sales No. E.19.XI.9).Google Scholar
World Health Organization, Western Pacific Region. Patterns and Consequences of the Use of Amphetamine-Type Stimulants (ATS) (Technical Brief 1 on Amphetamine-Type Stimulants).Google Scholar
World Health Organization. Amphetamine-Type Stimulants. Published 1997.Google Scholar
European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA). The Levels of Use of Opioids, Amphetamines and Cocaine and Associated Levels of Harm: Summary of Scientific Evidence. Published March 2014.Google Scholar
Corkery, JM, Elliott, S, Schifano, F, Corazza, O, Ghodse, AH. DPMP (desoxypipradrol, 2-benzhydrylpiperidine, 2-phenylmethylpiperidine) and D2PM (diphenyl-2-pyrrolidin-2-yl-methanol, diphenylprolinol): a preliminary review. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2012;39(2):253258. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pnpbp.2012.05.021CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Davidson, C, Ramsey, J. Desoxypipradrol is more potent than cocaine on evoked dopamine efflux in the nucleus accumbens. J Psychopharmacol 2012;26(7):10361041. https://doi.org/10.1177/0269881111430733Google Scholar
Murray, DB, Potts, S, Haxton, C, et al. ‘Ivory wave’ toxicity in recreational drug users; integration of clinical and poisons information services to manage legal high poisoning. Clin Toxicol 2012;50(2):108113. https://doi.org/10.3109/15563650.2011.647992Google Scholar
King, GR, Ellinwood, Jr EH. Amphetamines and other stimulants. In: Lowinson, JH, Ruiz, P, Millman, RB, Langrod, JG, eds. Substance Abuse: A Comprehensive Textbook, 3rd edn., pp. 207223. Baltimore, MD, Williams and Wilkins, 1997.Google Scholar
O’Donnell, A, Addison, M, Spencer, L, et al. Which individual, social and environmental influences shape key phases in the amphetamine-type stimulant use trajectory? A systematic narrative review and thematic synthesis of the qualitative literature. Addiction 2019;114:2447.Google Scholar
Public Health England, Health Protection Scotland, Public Health Wales, Public Health Agency Northern Ireland. Shooting Up: Infections among People Who Inject Drugs in the United Kingdom 2012. Public Health England, November 2013.Google Scholar
Harada, T, Tsutomi, H, Mori, R, Wilson, DB. Cognitive-behavioural treatment for amphetamine-type stimulants (ATS)-use disorders. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2018;12:CD011315. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD011315.pub2Google Scholar
Harada, T, Tsutomi, H, Mori, R, Wilson, DB. Cognitive-behavioural treatment for amphetamine-type stimulants (ATS)-use disorders. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2018;12:CD011315. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD011315.pub2Google Scholar
Singleton, J, Degenhardt, L, Hall, W, Zábranský, T. Mortality among amphetamine users: a systematic review of cohort studies. Drug Alcohol Depend 2009;105(1–2):18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. drugalcdep.2009.05.028CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Colfax, G, Santos, G-M, Chu, P, et al. Amphetamine-group substances and HIV. Lancet 2010;376(9739):458474. https://doi.org/10.1016/ S0140-6736(10)60753-2Google Scholar
Darke, S, Kaye, S, McKetin, R, Duflou, J. Major physical and psychological harms of methamphetamine use. Drug Alcohol Rev 2008;27(3):253262. https://doi.org/10.1080/09595230801923702Google Scholar
Grund, J-P, Coffin, P, Jauffret-Roustide, M, et al. The fast and the furious: cocaine, amphetamines and harm reduction. In: Rhodes, T, Hedrich, D, eds. Harm Reduction: Evidence, Impacts and Challenges, pp. 191232. Luxembourg, Publications Office of the European Union, 2010.Google Scholar
See for example Lehmann, S, Kieliba, T, Thevis, M, et al. Fatalities associated with NPS stimulants in the Greater Cologne area. Int J Legal Med 2020;134:229241. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00414-019-02193-zGoogle Scholar
Hill, S, Thomas, SH. Clinical toxicology of newer recreational drugs. Clin Toxicol 2011;49(8):705719. https://doi.org/10.3109/15563650.2011.615318Google Scholar
Advisory Council on the Misuse of Drugs (ACMD). Desoxypipradrol (2-DPMP) advice. London, 2011. Available at: https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/119114/desoxypipradrol-report.pdf [last accessed 25 April 2022].Google Scholar
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Laboratory and Scientific Section. Details for phenethylamines. Available at: www.unodc.org/LSS/SubstanceGroup/Details/275dd468-75a3-4609-9e96-cc5a2f0da467 [last accessed 8 March 2022].Google Scholar
Pérez-Mañá, C, Castells, X, Torrens, M, Capellà, D, Farre, M. Efficacy of psychostimulant drugs for amphetamine abuse or dependence (review). Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2013;2(9):CD009695. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD009695.pub2Google Scholar
Darke, S, Duflou, J, Kaye, S, Farrell, M, Lappin, J. Psychostimulant use and fatal stroke in young adults. J Forensic Sci 2019;64(5):14211426. https://doi.org/10.1111/1556-4029.14056CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Henry, JA, Jeffreys, KJ, Dawling, S. Toxicity and deaths from 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (‘ecstasy’). Lancet 1992;340:384387.Google Scholar
Green, AR, O’Shea, E, Colado, MI. A review of the mechanisms involved in the acute MDMA (ecstasy)-induced hyperthermic response. Eur J Pharmacol 2004;500(1–3):313.Google Scholar
Jaehne, EJ, Salem, A, Irvine, RJ. Pharmacological and behavioural determinants of cocaine, methamphetamine, 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine, and para-methoxyamphetamine-induced hyperthermia. Psychopharmacology 2007;194(1):4152.Google Scholar
Kalant, H, Kalant, OJ. Death in amphetamine users: causes and rates. Can Med Assoc J 1975;112:299304.Google Scholar
Kendrick, WC, Hull, AR, Knochel, JP. Rhabdomyolysis and shock after intravenous amphetamine administration. Ann Int Med 1977;86:381387.Google Scholar
Sun-Edelstein, C, Tepper, SJ, Shapiro, RE. Drug-induced serotonin syndrome: a review. Expert Opin Drug Saf 2008;7(5):587596. https://doi.org/10.1517/14740338.7.5.587Google Scholar
Wang, RZ, Vashistha, V, Kaur, S, Houchens, NW. Serotonin syndrome: preventing, recognizing, and treating it. Cleve Clin J Med 2016;83(11):810817. https://doi.org/10.3949/ccjm.83a.15129Google Scholar
Gillman, PK. Triptans, serotonin agonists, and serotonin syndrome (serotonin toxicity): a review. Headache 2010;50:264–272.Google Scholar
Huether, G, Zhou, D, Ruther, E. Causes and consequences of the loss of serotonergic presynapses elicited by the consumption of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, ‘ecstasy’) and its congeners. J Neural Transm 1997;104:771794.Google Scholar
Schifano, F. A bitter pill. Overview of ecstasy (MDMA, MDA)-related fatalities. Psychopharmacology 2004;173:242248.Google Scholar
Sternbach, H. The serotonin syndrome. Am J Psychiatry 1991;148:705713.Google Scholar
Gill, M, LoVecchio, F, Selden, B. Serotonin syndrome in a child after a single dose of fluvoxamine. Ann Emerg Med 1999;33:457459.Google Scholar
Parrott, AC. Recreational ecstasy/MDMA, the serotonin syndrome, and serotonergic neurotoxicity. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2002;71:837844.Google Scholar
Lee, DO, Lee, CD. Serotonin syndrome in a child associated with erythromycin and sertraline. Pharmacotherapy 1999;19:894896.Google Scholar
Gardner, MD, Lynd, LD. Sumatriptan contraindications and the serotonin syndrome. Ann Pharmacother 1998;32:3338.Google Scholar
Giese, SY, Neborsky, R. Serotonin syndrome: potential consequences of Meridia combined with demerol or fentanyl. Plast Reconstr Surg 2001;107:293294.Google Scholar
DeSilva, KE, Le Flore, DB, Marston, BJ, Rimland, D. Serotonin syndrome in HIV-infected individuals receiving antiretroviral therapy and fluoxetine. AIDS 2001;15:12811285.Google Scholar
Callaway, JC, Grob, CS. Ayahuasca preparations and serotonin reuptake inhibitors: a potential combination for severe adverse reactions. J Psychoactive Drugs 1998;30:367369.Google Scholar
Izzo, AA, Ernst, E. Interactions between herbal medicines and prescribed drugs: a systematic review. Drugs 2001;61:21632175.Google Scholar
Lange-Asschenfeldt, C, Weigmann, H, Hiemke, C, Mann, K. Serotonin syndrome as a result of fluoxetine in a patient with tramadol abuse: plasma level-correlated symptomatology. J Clin Psychopharmacol 2002;22:440441.Google Scholar
Turkel, SB, Nadala, JG, Wincor, MZ. Possible serotonin syndrome in association with 5-HT(3) antagonist agents. Psychosomatics 2001;42:258260.Google Scholar
Isbister, GK, Bowe, SJ, Dawson, A, Whyte, IM. Relative toxicity of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) in overdose. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol 2004;42:277285.Google Scholar
Copeland, J, Dillon, P, Gascoigne, M. Ecstasy and the concomitant use of pharmaceuticals (NDARC Technical Report 201). National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, University of New South Wales, 2004.Google Scholar
Copeland, J, Dillon, P, Gascoigne, M. Ecstasy and the concomitant use of pharmaceuticals. Addict Behav 2006;31:367370.Google Scholar
Boyer, EW, Shannon, M. The serotonin syndrome. N Engl J Med 2005;352:11121120.Google Scholar
Dunkley, EJ, Isbister, GK, Sibbritt, D, Dawson, AH, Whyte, IM. The Hunter serotonin toxicity criteria: simple and accurate diagnostic decision rules for serotonin toxicity. QJM 2003;96:635642.Google Scholar
Williams, H, Dratcu, L, Taylor, R, Roberts, M, Oyefeso, A.Saturday night fever’: ecstasy related problems in a London accident and emergency department. J Accid Emerg Med 1998;15(5):322326.Google Scholar
Milroy, CM, Clark, JC, Forrest, AR. Pathology of deaths associated with ‘ecstasy’ and ‘eve’ misuse. J Clin Pathol 1996;49(2):149153.Google Scholar
Winstock, AR, Griffiths, P, Stewart, D. Drugs and the dance music scene: a survey of current drug use patterns among a sample of dance music enthusiasts in the UK. Drug Alcohol Depend 2001;64(1):917.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sternbach, H. The serotonin syndrome. Am J Psychiatry 1991;148:705713.Google Scholar
Gill, M, LoVecchio, F, Selden, B. Serotonin syndrome in a child after a single dose of fluvoxamine. Ann Emerg Med 1999;33:457459.Google Scholar
Parrott, AC. Recreational ecstasy/MDMA, the serotonin syndrome, and serotonergic neurotoxicity. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2002;71:837844.Google Scholar
Lee, DO, Lee, CD. Serotonin syndrome in a child associated with erythromycin and sertraline. Pharmacotherapy 1999;19:894896.Google Scholar
Gardner, MD, Lynd, LD. Sumatriptan contraindications and the serotonin syndrome. Ann Pharmacother 1998;32:3338.Google Scholar
Giese, SY, Neborsky, R. Serotonin syndrome: potential consequences of Meridia combined with demerol or fentanyl. Plast Reconstr Surg 2001;107:293294.Google Scholar
DeSilva, KE, Le Flore, DB, Marston, BJ, Rimland, D. Serotonin syndrome in HIV-infected individuals receiving antiretroviral therapy and fluoxetine. AIDS 2001;15:12811285.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Callaway, JC, Grob, CS. Ayahuasca preparations and serotonin reuptake inhibitors: a potential combination for severe adverse reactions. J Psychoactive Drugs 1998;30:367369.Google Scholar
Izzo, AA, Ernst, E. Interactions between herbal medicines and prescribed drugs: a systematic review. Drugs 2001;61:21632175.Google Scholar
Lange-Asschenfeldt, C, Weigmann, H, Hiemke, C, Mann, K. Serotonin syndrome as a result of fluoxetine in a patient with tramadol abuse: plasma level-correlated symptomatology. J Clin Psychopharmacol 2002;22:440441.Google Scholar
Turkel, SB, Nadala, JG, Wincor, MZ. Possible serotonin syndrome in association with 5-HT(3) antagonist agents. Psychosomatics 2001;42:258260.Google Scholar
Demirkiran, M, Jankivic, J, Dean, JM. Ecstasy intoxication: an overlap between serotonin syndrome and neuroleptic malignant syndrome. Clin Neuropharmacol 1996;19:157164.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gillman, PK. Ecstasy, serotonin syndrome and the treatment of hyperpyrexia. Med J Aust 1997;167:109111.Google Scholar
Parrott, AC. MDMA, serotonergic neurotoxicity, and the diverse functional deficits of recreational ‘ecstasy’ users. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2013;37(8):14661484. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. neubiorev.2013.04.016CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Garrett, G, Sweeney, M. The serotonin syndrome as a result of mephedrone toxicity. BMJ Case Rep 2010;2010:bcr0420102925. https://doi.org/10.1136/bcr.04.2010.2925Google Scholar
Mugele, J, Nañagas, KA, Tormoehlen, LM. Serotonin syndrome associated with MDPV use: a case report. Ann Emerg Med 2012;60(1):100102. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annemergmed.2011.11.033Google Scholar
Bosak, A, LoVecchio, F, Levine, M. Recurrent seizures and serotonin syndrome following ‘2C-I’ ingestion. J Med Toxicol 2013;9(2):196198. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13181-013-0287-xGoogle Scholar
Silins, E, Copeland, J, Dillon, P. Qualitative review of serotonin syndrome, ecstasy (MDMA) and the use of other serotonergic substances: hierarchy of risk. Aust NZ J Psychiatry 2007;41(8):649655.Google Scholar
Mason, PJ, Morris, VA, Balcezak, TJ. Serotonin syndrome: presentation of 2 cases and review of the literature. Medicine 2000;79:201209.Google Scholar
Werneke, U, Jamshidi, F, Taylor, DM, Ott M. Conundrums in neurology: diagnosing serotonin syndrome – a meta-analysis of cases. BMC Neurology 2016;16:97. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12883-016–0616–1Google Scholar
Sun-Edelstein, C, Tepper, SJ, Shapiro, RE. Drug-induced serotonin syndrome: a review. Exp Opin Drug Safety 2008;7(5):587596.Google Scholar
Sternbach, H. The serotonin syndrome. Am J Psychiatry 1991;148:705713.Google Scholar
Radomski, JW, Dursun, SM, Reveley, MA, Kutcher, SP. An exploratory approach to the serotonin syndrome: an update of clinical phenomenology and revised diagnostic criteria. Med Hypotheses 2000;55:218224.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dunkley, EJ, Isbister, GK, Sibbritt, D, Dawson, AH, Whyte, IM. The hunter serotonin toxicity criteria: simple and accurate diagnostic decision rules for serotonin toxicity. QJM 2003;96:635642.Google Scholar
Werneke, U, Jamshidi, F, Taylor, DM, Ott M. Conundrums in neurology: diagnosing serotonin syndrome – a meta-analysis of cases. BMC Neurology 2016;16:97. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12883-016–0616–1CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Radomski, JW, Dursun, SM, Revely, MA, Kutcher, SP. An exploratory approach to the serotonin syndrome; an update of clinical phenomenology and revised diagnostic criteria. Med Hypotheses 2000;55:218224.Google Scholar
Birmes, P, Coppin, D, Schmitt, L, Lauque D. Serotonin syndrome: a brief review. CMAJ 2003;168(11):1439.Google Scholar
Watson, WA, Litovitz, TL, Rodgers, GC Jr, et al. Annual report of the American Association of Poison Control Centers Toxic Exposure Surveillance System. Am J Emerg Med 2003;21:353421.Google Scholar
Ables, AZ, Nagubilli, R. Prevention, recognition, and management of serotonin syndrome. Am Fam Physician 2010;81(9):11391142.Google Scholar
Dinesh, D, Patel, K, Galarneau, D. Serotonin syndrome with fluoxetine: two case reports. Ochsner J 2016;16:554557.Google Scholar
Mason, PJ, Morris, VA, Balceza, K TJ. Serotonin syndrome. Presentation of 2 cases and review of the literature. Medicine 2000;79:201209.Google Scholar
Dinesh, D, Patel, K, Galarneau, D. Serotonin syndrome with fluoxetine: two case reports. Ochsner J 2016;16:554557.Google Scholar
Jaunay, E, Gaillac, V, Guelfi, JD. Syndrome sérotoninergique. Quel traitement et quand? Presse Med 2001;30:16951700.Google Scholar
Gillman, PK. The serotonin syndrome and its treatment. J Psychopharmacol 1999;13(1):100109.Google Scholar
Dinesh, D, Patel, K, Galarneau, D. Serotonin syndrome with fluoxetine: two case reports. Ochsner J 2016;16:554557.Google Scholar
Gillman, PK. Monoamine oxidase inhibitors, opioid analgesics and serotonin toxicity. Br J Anaesth 2005;95:434441.Google Scholar
Ener, R, Meglathery, S, Van Decker, W, Gallagher, R. Serotonin syndrome and other serotonergic disorders. Pain Med 2003;4:6374.Google Scholar
Birmes, P, Coppin, D, Schmitt, L, Lauque, D. Serotonin syndrome: a brief review. JAMC 2003;168(11):14391442.Google Scholar
Turner, AH, Kim, JK, McCarron, RM, Nguyen, CT. Differentiating serotonin syndrome and neuroleptic malignant syndrome. Curr Psychiatr 2019;18:3036.Google Scholar
Werneke, U, Jamshidi, F, Taylor, DM, Ott M. Conundrums in neurology: diagnosing serotonin syndrome – a meta-analysis of cases. BMC Neurology 2016;16:97. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12883-016–0616–1CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Katus, LE, Frucht, SJ. Management of serotonin syndrome and neuroleptic malignant syndrome. Curr Treat Options Neurol 2016;18:39. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11940-016–0423–4Google Scholar
World Health Organization, Western Pacific Region. Harm Reduction and Brief Interventions for ATS Users (Technical Brief on Amphetamine-Type Stimulants 2). Available at: www.who.int/hiv/pub/idu/ats_brief2.pdf [last accessed 8 March 2022].Google Scholar
Schuckit, MA, Daeppen, JB, Danko, GP, et al. Clinical implications for four drugs of the DSM-IV distinction between substance dependence with and without a physiological component. Am J Psychiatry 1999;156(1):4149.Google Scholar
Shoptaw, SJ, Kao U,Heinzerling K, Ling, W. Treatment for amphetamine withdrawal. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2009;(2):CD003021. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD003021.pub2Google Scholar
McGregor, C, Srisurapanont, M, Jittiwutikarn, J, Laobhripatr, S, Wongtan, T, White, JM. The nature, time course and severity of methamphetamine withdrawal. Addiction 2005;100(9):13201329.Google Scholar
Gossop, MR, Bradley, BP, Brewis, RK. Amphetamine withdrawal and sleep disturbance. Drug Alcohol Depend 1982;10(2–3):177183.Google Scholar
Kaye, S, McKetin, R. Cardiotoxicity associated with methamphetamine use and signs of cardiovascular pathology among methamphetamine users. National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, University of New South Wales, 2005.Google Scholar
MacLean R, , Sofuoglu M., Stimulants and mood disorders. Curr Addict Rep 2018;5:323329. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40429-018-0212-0Google Scholar
Harada, T, Tsutomi, H, Mori, R, Wilson, DB. Cognitive-behavioural treatment for amphetamine-type stimulant (ATS)-use disorders. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2018;12:CD011315. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD011315.pub2Google ScholarPubMed
Salo, R, Flower, K, Kielstein, A, Leamon, MH, Nordahl, TE, Galloway, GP. Psychiatric comorbidity in methamphetamine dependence. Psychiatry Res 2011;186(23):356361.Google Scholar
Wilens, TE. Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and the substance use disorders: the nature of the relationship, subtypes at risk, and treatment issues. Psychiatr Clin North Am 2004;27(2):283301.Google Scholar
Glasner-Edwards, S, Mooney, LJ, Marinelli-Casey, P, Hillhouse, M, Ang, A, Rawson, RA, Methamphetamine Treatment Project Corporate Authors. Psychopathology in methamphetamine-dependent adults 3 years after treatment. Drug Alcohol Rev 2010;29:1220.Google Scholar
McKetin, R, Kelly, E, McLaren, J, Proudfoot, H. Impaired physical health among methamphetamine users in comparison with the general population: the role of methamphetamine dependence and opioid use. Drug Alcohol Rev 2008;27:482489.Google Scholar
Bramness, JG, Gundersen, OH, Guterstam, J, et al. Amphetamine-induced psychosis–a separate diagnostic entity or primary psychosis triggered in the vulnerable? BMC Psychiatry 2012;12:221.Google Scholar
Shoptaw, SJ, Kao, U, Ling, W. Treatment for amphetamine psychosis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2009;(1):CD003026. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD003026.pub3Google Scholar
Vallersnes, OM, Dines, AM, Wood, DM, et al. Psychosis associated with acute recreational drug toxicity: a European case series. BMC Psychiatry 2016;16:293.Google Scholar
Chen, CK, Lin, SK, Pak, CS, Ball, D, Loh, EW, Murray, RM. Morbid risk for psychiatric disorder among the relatives of methamphetamine users with and without psychosis. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet 2005;136B(1):8791.Google Scholar
World Health Organization, Western Pacific Region. Therapeutic Interventions for Users of Amphetamine-Type Stimulants (ATS) (Technical Briefs on Amphetamine-Type Stimulants 4).Google Scholar
World Health Organization. ICD-11 6C46.2 Stimulant dependence including amphetamines, methamphetamine or methcathinone. Available at: https://icd.who.int/browse11/l-m/en#/http://id.who.int/icd/entity/2016549355 [last accessed 25 April 2022].Google Scholar
Knapp, WP, Soares, B, Farrell, M, Silva de Lima M. Psychosocial interventions for cocaine and psychostimulant amphetamine-related disorders. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2007;(3):CD003023.Google Scholar
European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA). Best practice portal: treatment options for amphetamines users. Available at: www.emcdda.europa.eu/best-practice/treatment/amphetamines-users [last accessed 9 March 2022].Google Scholar
Soares Tardelli, V, Pimentel Pádua do Lago, M, Mendez, M, Bisaga, A. Management with pharmacologic treatment for stimulant use disorders: a review. Behav Res Ther 2018;111:5763.Google Scholar
Mimiaga, MJ, Closson, EF, Pantalone, DW, Safren, SA, Mitty, JA. Applying behavioral activation to sustain and enhance the effects of contingency management for reducing stimulant use among individuals with HIV infection. Psychol Health Med 2019;24(3):374381https://doi.org/10.1080/13548506.2018.1515492Google Scholar
Glasner, S, Mooney, LJ, Ang, A, et al. Mindfulness-based relapse prevention for stimulant dependent adults: a pilot randomized clinical trial. Mindfulness 2017;8:126135. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-016-0586-9Google Scholar
Harada, T, Tsutomi, H, Mori, R, Wilson, DB. Cognitive-behavioural treatment for amphetamine-type stimulants (ATS)-use disorders. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2018;12:CD011315. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD011315.pub2Google ScholarPubMed
Carmody, T, Greer, TL, Walker, R, Rethorst, CD, Trivedi, MH. A complier average causal effect analysis of the Stimulant Reduction Intervention using dosed exercise study. Contemp Clin Trials Commun 2018;10:18.Google Scholar
Haglund, M, Ang, A, Mooney, L, et al. Predictors of depression outcomes among abstinent methamphetamine-dependent individuals exposed to an exercise intervention. Am J Addict 2015;24(3):246251. https://doi.org/10. 1111/ajad.12175Google Scholar
Zhu, D, Xu, D, Dai, G, Wang, F, Xu, X, Zhou, D. Beneficial effects of Tai Chi for amphetamine-type stimulant dependence: a pilot study. Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse 2016;42(4):469478https://doi.org/10.3109/00952990.2016.1153646Google Scholar
Heinzerling, KG, Gender, Shoptaw S., brain-derived neurotrophic factor Val66Met, and frequency of methamphetamine use. Gend Med 2012;9(2):112120. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.genm.2012.02.005Google Scholar
Holdcraft, LC, Iacono, WG. Cross-generational effects on gender differences in psychoactive drug abuse and dependence. Drug Alcohol Depend 2004;74:147158.Google Scholar
Roth, ME, Carroll, ME. Sex differences in the acquisition of IV methamphetamine self-administration and subsequent maintenance under a progressive ratio schedule in rats. Psychopharmacology 2004;172:443449.Google Scholar
Vansickel, AR, Stoops, WW, Rush, CR. Human sex differences in d-amphetamine self-administration. Addiction 2010;105:727731.Google Scholar
Siefried, KJ, Acheson, LS, Lintzeris, N, et al. Pharmacological treatment of methamphetamine/amphetamine dependence: a systematic review. CNS Drugs 2020;34:337365. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40263-020-00711-xGoogle Scholar
Runarsdottir, V, Hansdottir, I, Tyrfingsson, T, et al.Extended-release injectable naltrexone (xr-ntx) with intensive psychosocial therapy for amphetamine-dependent persons seeking treatment: a placebo-controlled trial. J Addict Med 2017;11(3):197204. https://doi.org/10.1097/ADM.0000000000000297Google Scholar
Lee, NK, Jenner L, Harney A, Cameron J. Pharmacotherapy for amphetamine dependence: a systematic review. Drug Alcohol Depend 2018;191:309337. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2018.06.038Google Scholar
Ashok, AH, Mizuno, Y, Volkow, ND, Howes, OD. Association of stimulant use with dopaminergic alterations in users of cocaine, amphetamine, or methamphetamine: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Psychiatry 2017;74(5):511519. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2017.0135Google Scholar
Ujike, H, Sato, M. Clinical features of sensitization to methamphetamine observed in patients with methamphetamine dependence and psychosis. Ann NY Acad Sci 2004;1025:279287.Google Scholar
Leucht, S, Pitschel-Walz, G, Abraham, D, Kissling W. Efficacy and extrapyramidal side-effects of the new antipsychotics olanzapine, quetiapine, risperidone, and sertindole compared to conventional antipsychotics and placebo. A meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. Schizophr Res 1999;35(1):5168.Google Scholar
Xue, X, Song, Y, Yu, X, Fan, O, Tang, J, Chen, X. Olanzapine and haloperidol for the treatment of acute symptoms of mental disorders induced by amphetamine-type stimulants: a randomized controlled trial. Medicine 2018;97:8.Google Scholar
Bramness, JG, Rognli, EB. Psychosis induced by amphetamines. Curr Opin Psychiatry 2016;29(4):236241. https://doi.org/10.1097/YCO.0000000000000254Google Scholar
Leelahanaj, T, Kongsakon, R, Netrakom, P. A 4-week, double-blind comparison of olanzapine with haloperidol in the treatment of amphetamine psychosis. J Med Assoc Thailand 2005;88(Suppl.3):4352.Google Scholar
McIver, C, McGregor, C, Baigent, M, Spain, D, Newcombe, D, Ali, R. Guidelines for the Medical Management of Patients with Methamphetamine-Induced Psychosis. Drug and Alcohol Services, South Australia, 2006.Google Scholar
Fujii, D. Risk factors for treatment-resistive methamphetamine psychosis. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 2002;14(2):239240.Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure coreplatform@cambridge.org is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×