Ethical issues and concepts

Bertrand Russell describes ethical philosophies as a vast area of speculative uncertainty intermediate between science and theology [Russell 1957]. Maclntyre writes that, whereas physics and mathematics are based on scientifically verifiable facts, the only information available to ethical philosophers are opinions [Maclntyre 1966]. In his Discourse on Method René Descartes gave as his opinion: “There is nothing in the sphere of philosophy and ethics that is not in dispute; nothing that is above doubt”[Descartes 1966].

Over many millennia rulers, philosophers and scholars have proposed their concepts of what is ethical and moral. Though some contemporary writers distinguish between ‘ethics’ and ‘morals’, the two are essentially synonymous, the former being derived from ‘ηθικοζ’ (ethikos) which a Greek dictionary defines as ‘ethical, moral’, the latter from ‘moralis’ which a Latin dictionary defines as ‘moral, ethical’. The Oxford Dictionary defines ‘ethics’ as ‘the science of morals, of human conduct and duty’.It defines ‘morals’ as ‘pertaining to human behaviour and conduct, to distinguishing between right and wrong, between goodness and evil’. Aristotle regarded ethical behaviour as that which is conducive to the greatest happiness. Others have defined ethical standards in terms of justice, truth, equity, right and wrong, protection of the weak from oppression by the powerful. The Stoics contended that to be ethical is a divinely ordained duty, a virtue that is its own reward. Hammurabi's Code in effect defines ethical standards, its stated purpose being: “To cause justice to prevail, to destroy the wicked, to prevent the strong from oppressing the weak, to protect the health and welfare of the [Babylonian] people”.