International comparisons quickly reveal the complexities of societies and systems, and push us towards the (albeit tricky) task of explaining the origins and consequences of their differences and similarities. The debate has too often been conducted according to the binary choice of national institutions or the forces of globalisation, and, equally frequently, with a limited interpretation of history (static certainly, ahistorical probably). One problem is the view that economies are fundamentally national in origin, but subject to the pressures of internationalisation in the last two decades. It would be taking revisionism too far to deny the ease of modern communications, or the secular rise in world trade and investment. There are lessons, however, from the first wave of ‘globalisation’ during the nineteenth century.

Rajeswary Ampalavanar Brown's contribution to this volume demonstrates the historical importance of international business. Her account of Arab business groups indicates their role in the long-term development of south-east Asia, and it undermines the notion that the worldwide economy is a product of Westernisation, or even colonialism. Andrew Popp similarly employs detailed historical case studies, and questions the idea that regional clusters emerge fundamentally protected from international influences. Industrial districts in England in the nineteenth century were an integral part of a mainly open world economy. Popp argues that comparisons have to be conducted at many levels of scale, and that industrial districts draw on their local, national and international capabilities to formulate specific competitive solutions.