Around 1790, Kant thought intensively and movingly about the point of the universe and our role within it. In this essay I try to bring these reflections to life by unifying and expanding them into a plausible account. This involves an exploration of Kant's diverse uses of the word “end” – as in “end in itself” and “final end.”

Two Senses of Zweck

In the Metaphysics of Morals, Kant defines end (Zweck) as “an object of Willkür [of a rational being] through the representation of which it is determined to an action of producing this object” (MdS 6:381). According to this definition, which fits most occurrences of the word throughout Kant's writings, ends are what we more commonly call aims or goals: namely states of affairs or events that one has in mind while acting and tries to attain through one's conduct.

In light of many other passages, it is appropriate to construe this definition broadly, by including goals that have one or more of the following four features: (1) graduated goals: whose attainment is a matter of degree (to become a top pianist); (2) open-ended goals: whose attainment is capable of indefinite augmentation (to become strong, wealthy, happy, secure); (3) conservative goals: to extend into the future a state of affairs that already obtains (to keep my weight below 140lbs); and (4) holistic goals: to attain an overall pattern that includes elements of the past or present (that the Nazi crimes be punished).