Skip to main content Accessibility help
×
Hostname: page-component-76fb5796d-x4r87 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-26T04:33:42.133Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Part III - Broken Windows Policing

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  09 August 2019

David Weisburd
Affiliation:
George Mason University, Virginia
Anthony A. Braga
Affiliation:
Northeastern University, Boston
Get access

Summary

Despite attacks from the criminological, legal, and academic left, “broken windows” theory is a robust policy option in criminal justice practice and crime prevention. It has not only fueled the community policing movement, it has also informed the evolution of community courts, community prosecution, and community probation and parole. The Mid-town Manhattan Community Court, to give just one example, emphasizes broken windows’ ideas in its philosophy and practice. Moreover, the ideas embodied in broken windows have moved beyond criminal justice and criminology to areas like public health, education, parks, and business improvement districts (BIDs).

Type
Chapter
Information
Police Innovation
Contrasting Perspectives
, pp. 119 - 162
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2019

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

References

Baumer, E. P., & Wolff, K. T. (2014). Evaluating contemporary crime drop(s) in America, New York City, and many other places. Justice Quarterly, 31(1), 538.Google Scholar
Berk, R., & MacDonald, J. (2010). Policing the homeless: An evaluation of efforts to reduce homeless-related crime. Criminology & Public Policy, 9(4), 813840.Google Scholar
Blumstein, A., & Wallman, J. (eds.). (2000). The Crime Drop in America. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Bowling, B. (1999). The rise and fall of New York murder: Zero tolerance or crack’s decline? British Journal of Criminology, 39(4), 531554.Google Scholar
Braga, A. A., & Bond, B. J. (2008). Policing crime and disorder hot spots: A randomized controlled trial. Criminology, 46(3), 577607.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Braga, A. A., Weisburd, D. L., Waring, E. J., Green Mazerolle, L., Spelman, W., & Gajewski, F. (1999). Problem-oriented policing in violent crime places: a randomized controlled experiment. Criminology, 37(3), 541580.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Braga, A. A., Welsh, B. C., & Schnell, C. (2015). Can policing disorder reduce crime? A systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 52(4), 567588.Google Scholar
Campaign Zero. (2017). End Broken Windows Policing. Retrieved from www.joincampaignzero.org/brokenwindows.Google Scholar
Cerdá, M., Tracy, M., Messner, S. F., Vlahov, D., Tardiff, K., & Galea, S. (2009). Misdemeanor policing, physical disorder, and gun-related homicide: A spatial analytic test of “broken-windows” theory. Epidemiology, 20(4), 533541.Google Scholar
Cloward, R. A., & Ohlin, L. E. (1960). Delinquency and Opportunity: A Theory of Delinquent Gangs. New York: The Free Press.Google Scholar
Cook, P. J., & MacDonald, J. (2011). Public safety through private action: An economic assessment of BIDs. The Economic Journal, 121(May), 445462.Google Scholar
Corman, H., & Mocan, N. (2005). Carrots, sticks, and broken windows. Journal of Lawand Economics, 48, 235262.Google Scholar
Eck, J. E., & Maguire, E. R. (2000). Have changes in policing reduced violent crime? An assessment of the evidence. In Blumstein, A., & Wallman, J. (Eds.), The Crime Drop in America. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Glazer, N. (1979). On subway graffiti in New York. The Public Interest, 54 (Winter), 311.Google Scholar
Greenberg, D. F. (2014). Studying New York City’s crime decline: Methodological issues. Justice Quarterly, 31(1), 154188.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Greene, J. A. (1999). Zero tolerance: a case study of police policies and practices in New York City. Crime & Delinquency, 45(2), 171187.Google Scholar
Harcourt, B. E. (1998). Reflecting on the subject: a critique of the social influence conception of deterrence, the broken windows theory, and order-maintenance policing New York style. Michigan Law Review, 97, 291389.Google Scholar
Harcourt, B. E., & Ludwig, J. (2006). Broken windows: New evidence from New York City and a five-city experiment. University of Chicago Law Review, 73, 271320.Google Scholar
Hinkle, J. C., & Weisburd, D. (2008). The irony of broken windows policing: A micro-place study of the relationship between disorder, focused police crackdowns and fear of crime. Journal of Criminal Justice, 36(6), 503512.Google Scholar
Hirschi, T., & Selvin, H. C. (1966). False criteria of causality in delinquency research. Social Problems, 13, 254268.Google Scholar
Jacobs, J. (1961). The Death and Life of Great American Cities. New York, NY: Vintage Books.Google Scholar
Jang, S. J., & Johnson, B. R. (2001). Neighborhood disorder, individual religiosity, and adolescent use of illicit drugs: a test of multilevel hypotheses. Criminology, 39(1), 109144.Google Scholar
Karmen, A. (ed.). (1999). Crime and Justice in New York City. New York, NY: Primis Custom Publishing.Google Scholar
Karmen, A. (2000). New York Murder Mystery: The True Story Behind the Crime Crash of the 1990s. New York, NY: New York University Press.Google Scholar
Katz, C. M., Webb, V. J., & Schaefer, D. R. (2001). An assessment of the impact of quality-of-life policing on crime and disorder. Justice Quarterly, 18(4), 825876.Google Scholar
Keizer, K., Lindenberg, S., & Steg, L. (2008). The spreading of disorder. Science, 322, 16811685.Google Scholar
Kelling, G. L. (2001). Broken windows and the culture wars: A response to selected critiques. In Matthews, R., & Pitts, J. (eds.), Crime, Disorder, and Community Safety. London, UK: Routledge.Google Scholar
Kelling, G. L., & Coles, C. M. (1996). Fixing Broken Windows: Restoring Order and Reducing Crime in Our Communities. New York, NY: The Free Press.Google Scholar
Kelling, G. L., Pate, A., Ferrara, A., Utne, M., & Brown, C. E. (1981). Newark Foot Patrol Experiment. Washington, DC: Police Foundation.Google Scholar
Kelling, G. L., & Sousa, W. H. (2001). Do Police Matter? An Analysis of the Impact of New York City’s Police Reforms. Civic Report No. 22. New York, NY: Manhattan Institute.Google Scholar
LaGrange, R. L., Ferraro, K. F., & Supancic, M. (1992). Perceived risk and fear of crime: Role of social and physical incivilities. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 29(3), 311334.Google Scholar
Messner, S. F., Galea, S., Tardiff, K. J., Tracy, M., Bucciarelli, A., Piper, T. M., Frye, V., & Vlahov, D. (2007). Policing, drugs, and the homicide decline in New York City in the 1990s. Criminology, 45(2), 385414.Google Scholar
Novak, K. J., Hartman, J. L., Holsinger, A. M., & Turner, M. G. (1999). The effects of aggressive policing of disorder on serious crime. Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management, 22(2), 171190.Google Scholar
Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd ed. (1989). Oxford: Clarendon Press.Google Scholar
Pierce, G. L., Spaar, S. A., & Briggs, L. R. (1984). The Character of Police Work: Implications for the Delivery of Services. Boston, MA: Center for Applied Social Research, Northeastern University.Google Scholar
President’s Commission on Law Enforcement and the Administration of Justice. (1967). The Challenge of Crime in a Free Society. Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office.Google Scholar
Rosenfeld, R., Fornango, R., & Rengifo, A. F. (2007). The impact of order-maintenance policing on New York City homicide and robbery rates: 1981–2001. Criminology, 45(2), 355384.Google Scholar
Ross, C. E., & Jang, S. J. (2000). Neighborhood disorder, fear, and mistrust: The buffering role of social ties with neighbors. American Journal of Community Psychology, 28(4), 401420.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sampson, R. J., & Raudenbush, S. W. (1999). Systematic social observations of public spaces: A new look at disorder in urban neighborhoods. American Journal of Sociology, 105, 603651.Google Scholar
Sherman, L. W. (1989). Repeat calls for service: Policing the “hot spots.” In Kenney, D. J. (ed.), Police and Policing: Contemporary Issues. New York, NY: Praeger.Google Scholar
Sherman, L. W., Gartin, P. R., & Buerger, M. E. (1989). Hot spots of predatory crime: routine activities and the criminology of place. Criminology, 27(1), 2755.Google Scholar
Simons, R. (1995). Control in an age of empowerment. Harvard Business Review (March-April), 8088.Google Scholar
Skogan, W. G. (1990). Disorder and Decline: Crime and the Spiral of Decay in American Neighborhoods. New York, NY: The Free Press.Google Scholar
Skogan, W. G., & Maxfield, M. G. (1981). Coping with Crime: Individual and Neighborhood Reactions. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Sousa, W.H. (2010). Paying attention to minor offenses: Order maintenance policing in practice. Police Practice and Research: An International Journal, 11(1), 4559.Google Scholar
Sousa, W. H. (2015). What passes for scholarship these days: A response to broken windows critic Bernard Harcourt, (vol. Autumn). City Journal, New York, NY: Manhattan Institute.Google Scholar
Stewart, G. (1998). Black codes and broken windows: the legacy of racial hegemony in anti-gang civil injunctions. Yale Law Journal, 107(7), 22492279.Google Scholar
Taylor, R. B. (2001). Breaking Away from Broken Windows. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.Google Scholar
Thacher, D. (2004). Order maintenance reconsidered: moving beyond strong causal reasoning. The Journal of Criminal Law & Criminology, 94(2), 101133.Google Scholar
Weisburd, D., & Eck, J. E. (2004). What can police do to reduce crime, disorder, and fear? The Annals, 593, 4265.Google Scholar
Weisburd, D., Hinkle, J.C., Braga, A.A., & Wooditch, A. (2015). Understanding the mechanisms underlying broken windows policing: The need for evaluation evidence. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 52(4), 567588.Google Scholar
Weisburd, D., Hinkle, J.C., Famega, C., & Ready, J. (2011). The possible “backfire” effects of hot spots policing: An experimental assessment of impacts on legitimacy, fear and collective efficacy. Journal of Experimental Criminology, 7, 297320.Google Scholar
Weisburd, D., Maher, L., & Sherman, L. (1993). Contrasting crime general and crime specific theory: The case of hot spots of crime. Advances in Criminological Theory, 4, 4570.Google Scholar
Weisburd, D., & Majmundar, M. K. (eds.). (2018). Proactive Policing: Effects on Crime and Communities. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.Google Scholar
Weisburd, D., Telep., C. W., & Lawton, B. (2014). Could innovations in policing have contributed to the New York City crime drop even in a period of declining police strength?: The case of stop, question and frisk as a hot spots policing strategy. Justice Quarterly, 31(1), 129153.Google Scholar
Wilson, J. Q. (1968). Varieties of Police Behavior. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Wilson, J. Q., & Kelling, G. L. (1982). Broken windows: the police and neighborhood safety. The Atlantic Monthly, March, 2938.Google Scholar
Worrall, J. L. (2002). Does “Broken Windows” Law Enforcement Reduce Serious Crime? CICG Research Brief. Sacramento, CA: California Institute for County Government.Google Scholar
Xu, Y., Fiedler, M. L., & Flaming, K. H. (2005). Discovering the impact of community policing: the broken windows thesis, collective efficacy, and citizens’ judgment. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 42(2), 147186.Google Scholar
Zimring, F. E. (2012). The City That Became Safe: New York’s Lessons for Urban Crime and Its Control. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar

References

Alexander, M. (2010). The New Jim Crow. New York City: The New Press.Google Scholar
Baker, A. (2017). Street stops by New York City Police have plummeted. New York Times, May 30. Retrieved from www.nytimes.com/2017/05/30/nyregion/nypd-stop-and-frisk.html].Google Scholar
Black, D. (1980). The Behavior of Law. New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Blasko, B. L., Roman, C. G., & Taylor, R. B. (2015). Local gangs and residents’ perceptions of unsupervised teen groups: Implications for the incivilities thesis and neighborhood effects. Journal of Criminal Justice, 43(1): 2028. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2014.11.002.Google Scholar
Boritch, H., & Hagan, J. (1987). Crime and the changing forms of class control: Policing public order in “Toronto the Good,” 1859–1955. Social Forces, 66(2): 307335.Google Scholar
Braga, A. A., Welsh, B. C., & Schnell, C. (2015). Can policing disorder reduce crime? A systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 52(4): 567588. doi: 10.1177/0022427815576576.Google Scholar
Buerger, M., & Mazerolle, L. G. (1998). Third-party policing: A theoretical analysis of an emerging trend. Justice Quarterly, 15: 301328.Google Scholar
Campbell, J. April 7 (2015). Smuggled, untaxed cigarettes are everywhere in New York City. The Village Voice. Retrieved from www.villagevoice.com/2015/04/07/smuggled-untaxed-cigarettes-are-everywhere-in-new-york-city/].Google Scholar
Coates, Ta-Nehisi. (2015). Between the World and Me. New York: Spiegel & Grau.Google Scholar
Cordner, G. (1997). Community Policing. In Dunham, R. G., & Alpert, G. P. (eds.), Critical Issues in Policing: Contemporary Readings. Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press.Google Scholar
Donner, C., Maskaly, J., Fridell, L., & Jennings, W. G. (2015). Policing and procedural justice: A state-of-the-art review. Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management, 38(1): 153172. doi: 10.1108/pijpsm-12-2014-0129.Google Scholar
Enns, P. K. (2016). Incarceration Nation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Ferman, B. (1996). Challenging the Growth Machine: Neighborhood Politics in Chicago and Pittsburgh. Lawrence: University of Kansas Press.Google Scholar
Fogelson, R. M. (1968). From resentment to confrontation: The police, the Negroes, and the outbreak of the nineteen-sixties riots. Political Science Quarterly, 83(2): 217247.Google Scholar
Gaines, L. K., & Kappeler, V. E. (2008). Policing in America. Newark, NJ: LexisNexis.Google Scholar
Garland, D. (2002). The Culture of Control: Crime and Social Order in Contemporary Society. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Garofalo, J., & Laub, J. (1978). The fear of crime: Broadening our perspective. Victimology, 3: 242253.Google Scholar
Geller, A., & Fagan, J. (2010). Pot as pretext: Marijuana, race, and the new disorder in New York City street policing. Journal of Empirical Legal Studies, 7(4): 591633. doi: 10.1111/j.1740-1461.2010.01190.x.Google Scholar
Greene, J. R., & Mastrofski, S. (eds.). (1988). Community Policing: Rhetoric and Reality. New York: Praeger.Google Scholar
Greene, J. R., & Pelfrey, W. V. (1997). Shifting the balance of power between police and community. In Dunham, R. G., & Alpert, G. P. (eds.), Critical Issues in Policing: Contemporary Readings. Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press.Google Scholar
Greene, J. R., & Taylor, R. B. (1988). Community-based policing and foot patrol: Issues of theory and evaluation. In Greene, J. R., & Mastrofski, S. D. (eds.), Community Policing: Rhetoric or Reality? (pp. 195224). New York: Praeger.Google Scholar
Groff, E. R. (2015). Informal social control and crime events. Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, 31(1): 90106. doi: 10.1177/1043986214552619.Google Scholar
Hallman, H. W. (1984). Neighborhoods: Their Place in Urban Life. Beverly Hills: Sage.Google Scholar
Harcourt, B. E. (2001). Illusion of Order: The False Promise of Broken Windows Policing. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Hersey, John. (1968). The Algiers Motel Incident. New York: Knopf.Google Scholar
Hunter, A. (1974). Symbolic Communities. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Innes, M. (2014). Signal Crimes: Social Reactions to Crime, Disorder, and Control. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Ismaili, K. (2003). Explaining the cultural and symbolic resonance of zero tolerance in contemporary criminal justice. Contemporary Justice Review, 6(3): 255264.Google Scholar
Jeffery, R., & Vira, B. (2001). Introduction. In Jeffery, R., & Vira, B. (eds.), Conflict and Cooperation in Particiaptory Natural Resource Management (pp. 116). New York: Palgrave MacMillan.Google Scholar
Kelling, G. L. (1999). “Broken Windows” and Police Discretion. US Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs.Google Scholar
Kelling, G. (2015). An author’s brief history of an idea. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 52(4): 626629. doi: 10.1177/0022427815578175.Google Scholar
Kelling, G. L., & Coles, C. M. (1996). Fixing Broken Windows: Restoring Order and Reducing Crime in Our Communities. New York: Free Press.Google Scholar
Kelling, G. L., & Sousa, W. H. Jr. (2001). Do Police Matter?: An Analysis of the Impact of New York City’s Police Reforms. Manhattan Institute Civic Report, No. 22.Google Scholar
Kerner, O. (1968). Report of the National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders. New York: Bantam.Google Scholar
Keys, A. (2017). The Consultant’s First Semiannual Report on Investigatory Stop and Protective Pat Down Agreement for the Period January 1, 2016 – June 30, 2016. Chicago.Google Scholar
Koper, C. S., Guterbock, T. M., Woods, D. J., Taylor, B., & Carter, T. J. (2013). The effects of local immigration enforcement on crime and disorder. Criminology & Public Policy, 12(2): 239276. doi: 10.1111/1745-9133.12022.Google Scholar
Kubrin, C. E. (2008). Making order of disorder: A call for conceptual clarity. Criminology & Public Policy, 7(2): 203214.Google Scholar
Link, N. W., Kelly, J. M., Pitts, J. R., Waltman-Spreha, K., & Taylor, R. B. (2017). Reversing broken windows: Evidence of lagged, multilevel impacts of risk perceptions on perceptions of incivility. Crime & Delinquency, 63(6): 659682. doi: 10.1177/0011128714555606.Google Scholar
Logan, J. R., & Molotch, H. (1987). Urban Fortunes. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
MacDonald, H. (2016). The War on Cops. New York: Encounter Books.Google Scholar
Mazerolle, L., Bennett, S., Davis, J., Sargeant, E., & Manning, M. (2013). Procedural justice and police legitimacy: A systematic review of the research evidence. Journal of Experimental Criminology, 9(3): 245274. doi: 10.1007/s11292-013-9175-2.Google Scholar
Mazzerolle, L. G., Kadleck, C., & Roehl, J. (1998). Controlling drug and disorder problems: The role of place managers. Criminology, 36: 371404.Google Scholar
McArdle, A., & Erzin, T. (eds.). (2001). Zero Tolerance: Quality of Life and the New Police Brutality in New York City. New York: New York University Press.Google Scholar
Meares, T. L. (2015a). Programming errors: Understanding the constitutionality of stop-and-frisk as a program, not an incident. University of Chicago Law Review, 82: 159180.Google Scholar
Meares, T. (2015b). Broken windows, neighborhoods, and the legitimacy of law enforcement or why i fell in and out of love with Zimbardo. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 52(4): 609625. doi: 10.1177/0022427815583911.Google Scholar
Monkkonen, E. H. (1981). Police in Urban America, 1860–1920. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Mooney, S. J., Joshi, S., Cerda, M., Kennedy, G. J., Beard, J. R., & Rundle, A. G. (2017). Neighborhood disorder and physical activity among older adults: A longitudinal study. Journal of Urban Health-Bulletin of the New York Academy of Medicine, 94(1): 3042. doi: 10.1007/s11524-016-0125-y.Google Scholar
National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. (2017). Proactive Policing: Effects on Crime and Communities. Washington, DC: National Academies Press. doi: https: doi.org/10.17226/24928.Google Scholar
O’Brien, D. T., & Sampson, R. J. (2015). Public and private spheres of neighborhood disorder. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 52(4): 486510. doi: 10.1177/0022427815577835.Google Scholar
Ostrom, E., & Whitaker, G. (1973). Does local community control of police make a difference? Some preliminary findings. American Journal of Political Science, 17(1): 4876.Google Scholar
Ostrom, E., Parks, R. B., Whitaker, G. P., & Percy, S. L. (1979). The public service production process: A framework for analysing police services. In Baker, R., & Meyer, F. A. Jr. (eds.), Evaluating Alternative Law Enforcement Policies (pp. 65–73). Lexington: DC Heath.Google Scholar
Ostrom, E. (1996). Crossing the great divide: Coproduction, synergy and development. World Development, 24(6): 10731088.Google Scholar
Ostrom, E. (1998). A behavioral approach to the rational choice theory of collective action: Presidential Address, American Political Science Association, 1997. American Political Science Review, 92(1): 122.Google Scholar
Ostrom, E. (2010). A long polycentric journey. Annual Review of Political Science, 13(1): 123. doi:10.1146/annurev.polisci.090808.123259.Google Scholar
Pyrooz, D. C., Decker, S. H., Wolfe, S. E., & Shjarback, J. A. (2016). Was there a Ferguson effect on crime rates in large U.S. cities?. Journal of Criminal Justice, 46: 18. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2016.01.001.Google Scholar
Roberts, S. August 10 (2014). Author of “Broken Windows” policing defends his theory. New York Times. Retrieved from www.nytimes.com/2014/08/11/nyregion/author-of-broken-windows-policing-defends-his-theory.html?_r=0</i>..>Google Scholar
Rosenbaum, D. P. (1988). Community crime prevention: A review and synthesis of the literature. Justice Quarterly, 5(3): 323395.Google Scholar
Rothstein, R. (2017). The Color of Law: A Forgotten History of How Our Government Segregated America. New York: W. W. Norton.Google Scholar
Sampson, R. J. (2012). Great American City: Chicago and the Enduring Neighborhood Effect. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Shjarback, J. A., Pyrooz, D. C., Wolfe, S. E., & Decker, S. H. (2017). De-policing and crime in the wake of Ferguson: Racialized changes in the quantity and quality of policing among Missouri police departments. Journal of Criminal Justice, 50: 4252. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2017.04.003.Google Scholar
Skogan, W. G. (1990). Disorder and Decline: Crime and the Spiral of Decay in American Cities. New York: Free Press.Google Scholar
Skogan, W. G., & Hartnett, S. (1997). Community Policing, Chicago Style. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Skogan, W. (2015). Disorder and decline: The state of research. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 52(4): 464485. doi: 10.1177/0022427815577836.Google Scholar
Sousa, W. H., & Kelling, G. (2005). Of “broken windows,” criminology and criminal justice. In Weisburd, D., & Braga, A. A. (eds.), Police Innovation: Contrasting Pespectives (pp. 77–97). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Spelman, W., & Eck, J. E. (1987). Problem-Oriented Policing. Washington, DC: National Institute of Justice.Google Scholar
Taylor, R. B. (1999). The incivilities thesis: Theory, measurement and policy. In Langworthy, R. L. (ed.), Measuring What Matters (pp. 65–88). Washington, DC: National Institute of Justice / Office of Community Oriented Policing Services.Google Scholar
Taylor, R. B. (2001). Breaking Away from Broken Windows: Evidence from Baltimore Neighborhoods and the Nationwide Fight against Crime, Grime, Fear and Decline. New York: Westview Press.Google Scholar
Taylor, R. B. (2005). Incivilities Reduction Policing, Zero Tolerance, and the Retreat from Coproduction: Weak Foundations and Strong Pressures. In Weisburd, D., & Braga, A. A. (eds.), Innovations in Policing (pp. 98–114). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Taylor, R. B. (2015). Community Criminology: Fundamentals of Spatial and Temporal Scaling, Ecological Indicators, and Selectivity Bias. New York: New York University Press.Google Scholar
Taylor, R. B., Harris, P. W., Jones, P. R., Garcia, R. M., & McCord, E. S. (2011). Ecological origins of shared perceptions of troublesome teen groups: Implications for the basic systemic model of crime, the incivilities thesis, and political economy. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 48(2): 298324. doi: 10.1177/0022427810391537.Google Scholar
Taylor, R. B., & Lawton, B. A. (2012). An integrated contextual model of confidence in local police. Police Quarterly, 15(4): 414445. doi: 10.1177/1098611112453718.Google Scholar
Taylor, R. B., Wyant, B. R., & Lockwood, B. (2015). Variable links within perceived police legitimacy?: Fairness and effectiveness across races and places. Social Science Research, 49.Google Scholar
The New York Times Editorial Board. August 11 (2017). Editorial: Another Course Correction for City Policing. New York Times. Retrieved from www.nytimes.com/2017/08/10/opinion/nyc-summonses-prosecutors-petty-crimes.html?ref=opinion&_r=0]</i.Google Scholar
Tonry, M. H. (1995). Malign Neglect: Race, Crime and Punishment in America. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Ward, J. T., Link, N. W., & Taylor, R. B. (2017). New windows into a broken construct: A multilevel factor analysis and DIF assessment of perceived incivilities. Journal of Criminal Justice, 51: 7488. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2017.06.004.Google Scholar
Weisburd, D., Hinkle, J. C., Braga, A. A., & Wooditch, A. (2015). Understanding the mechanisms underlying broken windows policing: The need for evaluation evidence. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 52(4): 589608. doi: 10.1177/0022427815577837.Google Scholar
Weitzer, R. (1999). Citizens’ perceptions of police misconduct: Race and neighborhood context. Justice Quarterly, 16: 819846.Google Scholar
Weitzer, R., & Tuch, S. A. (1999). Race, class, and perceptions of discrimination by the police. Crime & Delinquency, 45(4): 494507.Google Scholar
Welsh, B. C., Braga, A. A., & Bruinsma, G. J. N. (2015). Reimagining broken windows: From theory to policy. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 52(4): 447463. doi: 10.1177/0022427815581399.Google Scholar
Welsh, B. C., Zimmerman, G. M., & Zane, S. N. (2017). The centrality of theory in modern day crime prevention: Developments, challenges, and opportunities. Justice Quarterly, 35(1): 123. doi: 10.1080/07418825.2017.1300312.Google Scholar
White, G. F. (2001). Homeownership: Crime and the tipping and trapping processes. Environment & Behavior, 33(3): 325342.Google Scholar
Wilson, J. Q. (1975). Thinking About Crime. New York: Basic.Google Scholar
Wilson, J. Q., & Kelling, G. L. (1982). Broken Windows. Atlantic Monthly, 211(March):2938.Google Scholar
Wilson, J. Q., & Kelling, G. L. (1989). Making neighborhoods safe. Atlantic February: 4652.Google Scholar
Wolfe, S. E., & Nix, J. (2016). The alleged “Ferguson Effect” and police willingness to engage in community partnership. Law and Human Behavior, 40(1): 110.Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure coreplatform@cambridge.org is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×