Literary References: Evidence of Statue Production and Textile Terminology

In the Old Javanese language, there is a term pande, meaning “skilled worker, or smith” (Zoetmulder 1982). A goldsmith is referred to as pande-mas, and bronze or copper are referred to as tambaga. Whilst we have the knowledge of these terms, there does not appear to be any reference to the manufacture of bronze statuettes. It is most likely that a bronzesmith would have been a simple craftsman who worked in a small unit of apprentices (Lunsingh Scheurleer and Klokke 1988b, pp. 13–14). It has also been suggested, however, that the images cast in bronze far outnumber those made in gold or silver. This does not necessarily mean there was an imbalance in the numbers of different types of sculptures cast, but only that the gold and silver statues could have been used to pay local taxes and could also have been melted down. On close analysis, the quality of the statues in gold and silver often appears to be of a subtler nature to that of the bronze figures, which are often rougher in execution. The greatest achievement of the bronze caster of the Central Javanese period was in the highest artistic expression achieved in the “introspective spirituality and the nobility of expression, epitomised by the highest ideals of Buddhism, in a convincing manner such as no Indian sculptor ever achieved” (Fontein, Soekmono and Suleiman 1971, p. 41).

The majority of the bronzes were cast using the lost-wax process, whereas a number of the gold plaques were made by repoussé, with hammered patterns from the front. The smooth surface allowed the craftsmen to hammer in tiny details of the textile patterns. The stone statues, on the other hand, are of varying qualities and colours. The stone used in the thirteenth century ranged from an exceptional pale-grey stone to an almost white stone, in which detailed carvings of patterns were possible. In contrast, the stone employed in the earlier ninth and tenth centuries ranged from dark grey to black; it was rough to the touch, making intricate details such as textile patterns challenging to execute. It is quite evident that the availability and quality of stone depended on the location of the workshops in different periods in history. Unfortunately, there does not appear to be any reference in the Old Javanese literature to the processes of the selection of materials or the execution of the statues.