Iran’s tumultuous history during the twentieth century swirled around conflicts over political power, economic resources and ideological schisms. Beginning with the constitutional revolution of 1905, democratic forces mobilised to check the coercive state power. As each struggle failed, exclusive polities emerged, refusing to empower the people and grant civil liberties. Growing oil revenues, and foreign intervention, strengthened the rulers’ power and facilitated state domination of society. In the 1979 revolution Iranians fought to achieve national independence, establish political freedom and reduce rising inequalities in the distribution of wealth and income. The democratic forces did not prevail, however, as a faction of the ʿulamāʾ seized power, imposed a theocratic state, eliminated its coalition partners and repressed all opposition. In the context of global democratisation, the state generated a new set of conflicts that have yet to reach a climax.

Establishment of the Pahlavi dynasty

In the early years of the twentieth century Iran’s weak, corrupt government was incapable of blocking foreign powers from exerting substantial influence over the country’s affairs. Britain invaded Iran in January 1918 on the heels of Russia’s October revolution as Bolsheviks withdrew their troops from Iran and renounced all tsarist privileges. By 1919 Britain was the sole foreign power in Persia, and attempted to consolidate its control formally with the Anglo-Persian Agreement of 1919. The agreement, authored mainly by Foreign Secretary Lord Curzon, stipulated that Britain would lend Iran £2,000,000 and construct railways, revise tariffs and collect war compensation from third parties.