Skip to main content Accessibility help
×
Hostname: page-component-7c8c6479df-r7xzm Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-03-29T00:16:28.795Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

13 - Managing Carbon: Ecological Limits and Constraints

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  05 February 2013

Daniel G. Brown
Affiliation:
University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
Derek T. Robinson
Affiliation:
University of Waterloo, Ontario
Nancy H. F. French
Affiliation:
Michigan Technological University
Bradley C. Reed
Affiliation:
United States Geological Survey, California
Get access

Summary

Introduction

Humans have been managing terrestrial carbon (C) since time immemorial as a way to obtain energy stored in vegetation, food, and fiber from domesticated crops and animals, as well as wood products from forests. This manipulation of terrestrial C, inadvertent at first, has been more deliberate since 1800 and led to a net release of C to the atmosphere of about 200 Pg C since then. The net annual carbon dioxide (CO2) flux to the atmosphere from vegetation and soils, currently estimated at 1.2 Pg C·y−1 mainly due to land-use changes in tropical environments, is a major factor contributing to rising atmospheric CO2.

In 1977, Freeman Dyson hypothesized that the accumulation of CO2 in the atmosphere could be controlled via tree planting and estimated that approximately 4.5 Pg C · y−1 could be sequestered this way (Dyson 1977). The possibility of storing C in soils as a way to mitigate atmospheric CO2 increase and to restore lost soil organic matter and fertility emerged about two decades ago. Cole et al. (1997) estimated that about two-thirds of the historical losses of soil organic carbon (SOC) (approximately 40 Pg C) could be sequestered over 50 to 100 years through the implementation of nutrient management, cropping intensity, diversified crop rotation, and reduced tillage practices. In the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) second assessment report, Brown et al. (1996) estimated that about 38 Pg C could be sequestered on 345 × 106 hectares during 50 years via afforestation, reforestation, and agroforestry practices. Indeed, the Kyoto Protocol recognized afforestation and reforestation as mitigation practices implementable through the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM). Although the importance of soils as a C repository was recognized in the Kyoto Protocol, this technology was not included as a mitigation practice during the first commitment period (2008 to 2012) due to measurement uncertainties.

Type
Chapter
Information
Land Use and the Carbon Cycle
Advances in Integrated Science, Management, and Policy
, pp. 331 - 358
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2013

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Achard, F., Eva, H.D., Stibig, H.J., Mayaux, P., Gallego, J., Richards, T., and Malingreau, J.-P. 2002. Determination of deforestation rates of the world's humid tropical forests. Science, 297:999–1002.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Anderson, I.C., Levine, J.S., Poth, M.A., and Riggan, P.J. 1988. Enhanced biogenic emissions of nitric oxide and nitrous oxide following surface biomass burning. Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres, 93:3893–3898, .CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Antinori, C., and Sathaye, J. 2007. Assessing transaction costs of project-based greenhouse gas emissions trading. Tech. rep. LBNL-57315. Berkeley, CA: Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory.Google Scholar
Batjes, N.H. 1996. Total carbon and nitrogen in the soils of the world. European Journal of Soil Science, 47:151–163.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bayer, C., Martin-Neto, L., Mielniczuk, J., Pavinato, A., and Dieckow, J. 2006. Carbon sequestration in two Brazilian Cerrado soils under no-till. Soil and Tillage Research, 86:237–245.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bellamy, P.H., Loveland, P.J., Bradley, R.I., Murray Lark, R., and Kirk, G.J.D. 2005. Carbon losses from all soils across England and Wales 1978–2003. Nature, 437:245–248.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Birdsey, R.A., Jenkins, J.C., Johnston, M., Huber-Sannwald, E., Amero, B., de Jong, B.,…Pregitzer, K.S. 2007. Principles of forest management for enhancing carbon sequestration. In The first State of the Carbon Cycle Report (SOCCR): The North American carbon budget and implications for the global carbon cycle, ed. King, A.W., Dilling, L., Zimmerman, G.P., Fiarman, D.M., Houghton, R.A., Marland, G.H.,…Wilbanks, T.J.. Asheville, NC: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Climatic Data Center, pp. 175–176.Google Scholar
Birdsey, R., Pregitzer, K., and Lucier, A. 2006. Forest carbon management in the United States: 1600–2100. Journal of Environmental Quality, 35:1461–1469.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bouwman, A.F. 1996. Direct emission of nitrous oxide from agricultural soils. Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems, 46:53–70.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brown, D.J., Hunt, E.R., Izaurralde, R.C., Paustian, K.H., Rice, C.W., Schumaker, B.L., and West, T.O. 2010. Soil organic carbon change monitored over large areas. Eos, Transactions, American Geophysical Union, 91:441–442.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brown, S., Hall, M., Andrasko, K., Ruiz, F., Marzoli, W., Guerrero, G.,…Cornell, J. 2007. Baselines for land-use change in the tropics: Application to avoided deforestation projects. Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change, 12:1001–1026.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brown, S., Sathaye, J., Cannel, M., and Kauppi, P. 1996. Management of forests for mitigation of greenhouse gas emissions. In Climate change 1995: Impacts, adaptations, and mitigation of climate change: Scientific-technical analyses, ed. Watson, R.T., Zinyowera, M.C., and Moss, R.H.. Contribution of Working Group II to the Second Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 773–797.Google Scholar
Buyanovsky, G.A., and Wagner, G.H. 1998. Carbon cycling in cultivated land and its global significance. Global Change Biology, 4:131–141.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Campbell, J.E., Lobell, D.B., Genova, R.C., and Field, C.B. 2008. The global potential of bioenergy on abandoned agriculture lands. Environmental Science and Technology, 42:5791–5794.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Canadell, J.G., Le Quéré, C., Raupach, M.R., Field, C.B., Buitehuis, E.T., Ciais, P.,…Marland, G. 2007. Contributions to accelerating atmospheric CO2 growth from economic activity, carbon intensity, and efficiency of natural sinks. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 104:18866–18870.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cassel, D.K., Raczkowski, C.W., and Denton, H.P. 1995. Tillage effects on corn production and soil physical conditions. Soil Science Society of America Journal, 59:1436–1443.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cole, C.V., Duxbury, J., Freney, J., Heinemeyer, O., Minami, K., Mosier, A.,…Zhao, Q. 1997. Global estimates of potential mitigation of greenhouse gas emissions by agriculture. Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems, 49:221–228.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Conrad, R. 1996. Soil microorganisms as controllers of atmospheric trace gases (H2, CO, CH4, OCS, N2O, and NO). Microbiological Reviews, 60:609–640.Google Scholar
Davidson, E.A., and Ackerman, I.L. 1993. Changes in soil carbon inventories following cultivation of previously untilled soils. Biogeochemistry, 20:161–193.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Denman, K.L., Brasseur, G., Chidthaisong, A., Ciais, P., Cox, P., Dickinson, R.E.,…Zhang, X. 2007. Couplings between changes in the climate system and biogeochemistry. In Climate change 2007: The physical science basis, ed. Solomon, S., Qin, D., Manning, M., Chen, Z., Marquis, M., Averyt, K.,…Miller, H.L.. Working Group I Contribution to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 499–588.Google Scholar
Dyson, F.J. 1977. Can we control the carbon dioxide in the atmosphere?Energy, 2:287–291, .CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ellis, E.C., Goldewijk, K.K., Siebert, S., Lightman, D., and Ramankutty, N. 2010. Anthropogenic transformation of the biomes, 1700 to 2000. Global Ecology and Biogeography, 19:589–606.Google Scholar
Fang, J.Q., and Xie, Z.R. 1994. Deforestation in preindustrial China – the Loess Plateau Region as an example. Chemosphere, 29:983–999.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fargione, J., Hill, J., Tilman, D., Polasky, S., and Hawthorne, P. 2008. Land clearing and the biofuel carbon debt. Science, 319:1235–1238.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Folke, C., Carpenter, S., Walker, B., Scheffer, M., Elmqvist, T., Gunderson, L., and Holling, C.S. 2004. Regime shifts, resilience, and biodiversity in ecosystem management. Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics, 35:557–581.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Francis, G.S., and Knight, T.L. 1993. Long-term effects of conventional and no-tillage on selected soil properties and crop yields in Canterbury, New Zealand. Soil and Tillage Research, 26:193–210.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Franzluebbers, A.J. 2005. Soil organic carbon sequestration and agricultural greenhouse gas emissions in the southeastern USA. Soil and Tillage Research, 83:120–147.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Friedlingstein, P., Houghton, R.A., Marland, G., Hackler, J., Boden, T.A., Conway, T.J.,…Le Quéré, C. 2010. Update on CO2 emissions. Nature Geoscience, 3:811–812, .CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Galloway, J.N., Aber, J.D., Erisman, J.W., Seitzinger, S.P., Howarth, R.W., Cowling, E.B., and Cosby, B.J. 2003. The nitrogen cascade. BioScience, 53:341–356.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Galloway, J.N., and Cowling, E.B. 2002. Reactive nitrogen and the world: 200 years of change. AMBIO: A Journal of the Human Environment, 31:64–71.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Glaser, B., Haumaier, L., Guggenberger, G., and Zech, W. 2001. The “Terra Preta” phenomenon: A model for sustainable agriculture in the humid tropics. Naturwissenschaften, 88:37–41.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Godfray, H.C.J., Beddington, J.R., Crute, I.R., Haddad, L., Lawrence, D., Muir, J.F.,…Toulmin, C. 2010. Food security: The challenge of feeding 9 billion people. Science, 327:812–818.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Graham, R.L., Wright, L.L., and Turhollow, A.F. 1992. The potential for short-rotation woody crops to reduce U.S. CO2 emissions. Climatic Change, 22:223–38.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grandy, A.S., and Robertson, G.P. 2007. Land-use intensity effects on soil organic carbon accumulation rates and mechanisms. Ecosystems, 10(1):58–73.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gregg, J.S., and Smith, S.J. 2010. Global and regional potential for bioenergy from agricultural and forestry residue biomass. Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change, 15:241–262, .CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grigal, D.F., and Berguson, W.E. 1998. Soil carbon changes associated with short-rotation systems. Biomass and Bioenergy, 14(4):371–377.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grime, J.P. 1979. Plant strategies and vegetation processes. New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
Guo, L.B., and Gifford, R.M. 2002. Soil carbon stocks and land use change: A meta analysis. Global Change Biology, 8:345–360.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harmon, M.E., Franklin, J.F., Swanson, F.J., Sollins, P., Gregory, S.V., Lattin, J.D.,…Cummins, K.W. 1986. Ecology of coarse woody debris in temperate ecosystems. Advances in Ecological Research, 15:133–302.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hellwinckel, C.M., West, T.O., De La Torre Ugarte, D.G., and Perlack, R.D. 2010. Evaluating possible cap and trade legislation on cellulosic feedstock availability. Global Change Biology: Bioenergy, 2:278–287, .CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hill, J., Nelson, E., Tilman, D., Polask, S., and Tiffany, D. 2006. Environmental, economic, and energetic costs and benefits of biodiesel and ethanol biofuels. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 103:11206–11210.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Holland, J.M. 2004. The environmental consequences of adopting conservation tillage in Europe: Reviewing the evidence. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment, 103:1–25CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Houghton, R.A. 1999. The annual net flux of carbon to the atmosphere from changes in land use 1850–1990. Tellus B, 51:298–313.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Houghton, R.A. 2003. Revised estimates of the annual net flux of carbon to the atmosphere from changes in land use and land management 1850–2000. Tellus B, 55:378–390.Google Scholar
Houghton, R.A., Hobbie, J.E., Melillo, J.M., Moore, B., Peterson, B.J., Shaver, G.R., and Woodwell, G.M. 1983. Changes in the carbon content of terrestrial biota and soils between 1860 and 1980: A net release of CO2 to the atmosphere. Ecological Monographs, 53:236–262.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Huston, M.A., and Marland, G. 2003. Carbon management and biodiversity. Journal of Environmental Management, 67:77–86.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
IPCC. 2000. Land use, land-use change, and forestry, ed. Watson, R.T., Noble, I.R., Bolin, B., Ravindranath, N.H., Verardo, D.J., and Dokken, D.J.. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Izaurralde, R.C., McGill, W.B., Robertson, J.A., Juma, N.G., and Thurston, J.J. 2001. Carbon balance of the Breton Classical Plots over half a century. Soil Science Society of America Journal, 65:431–441.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Izaurralde, R.C., and Rice, C.W. 2006. Methods and tools for designing pilot soil carbon sequestration projects. In Carbon sequestration in Latin America, ed. Lal, R.. New York: Haworth Press, pp. 457–476.Google Scholar
Izaurralde, R.C., Williams, J.R., McGill, W.B., Rosenberg, N.J., and Quiroga Jakas, M.C. 2006. Simulating soil C dynamics with EPIC: Model description and testing against long-term data. Ecological Modelling, 192:362–384.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Izaurralde, R.C., Williams, J.R., Post, W.M., Thomson, A.M., McGill, W.B., Owens, L.B., and Lal, R. 2007. Long-term modeling of soil C erosion and sequestration at the small watershed scale. Climatic Change, 80:73–90.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jandl, R., Lindner, M., Vesterdal, L., Bauwens, B., Bartiz, R., Hagedorn, F.,…Byrne, K.A. 2007. How strongly can forest management influence soil carbon sequestration?Geoderma, 137:253–268.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Janzen, H.H., Campbell, C.A., Izaurralde, R.C., Ellert, B.H., Juma, N., McGill, W.B., and Zentner, R.P. 1998. Management effects on soil C storage on the Canadian prairies. Soil and Tillage Research, 47:181–195.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jastrow, J.D., Amonette, J.E., and Bailey, V.L. 2007. Mechanisms controlling soil carbon turnover and their potential application for enhancing carbon sequestration. Climatic Change, 80:5–23.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jenkinson, D.S. 1990. The turnover of organic-carbon and nitrogen in soil. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society: Biological Sciences, 329:361–368.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jenkinson, D.S. 1991. The Rothamsted long-term experiments – are they still of use?Agronomy Journal, 83:2–10.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jenkinson, D.S., and Ayanaba, A. 1977. Decomposition of C-14 labeled plant material under tropical conditions. Soil Science Society of America Journal, 41:912–915.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jenkinson, D.S., and Rayner, J.H. 1977. Turnover of soil organic-matter in some of Rothamsted classical experiments. Soil Science, 123:298–305.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jobbágy, E.G., and Jackson, R.B. 2000. The vertical distribution of soil organic carbon and its relation to climate and vegetation. Ecological Applications, 10:423–436.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Johnson, D.W., and Curtis, P.S. 2001. Effects of forest management on soil C and N storage: Meta-analysis. Forest Ecology and Management, 140:227–238.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Khalil, M.I., Gutser, R., and Schmidhalter, U. 2009. Effects of urease and nitrification inhibitors added to urea on nitrous oxide emissions from a loess soil. Journal of Plant Nutrition and Soil Science, 172:651–660, .CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lal, R. 1995. Global soil erosion by water and carbon dynamics. In Soils and global change, ed. Lal, R., Kimble, J.M., Levine, E., and Stewart, B.A.. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, pp. 131–142.Google Scholar
Lal, R. 2002. Soil carbon sequestration in China through agricultural intensification, and restoration of degraded and desertified ecosystems. Land Degradation and Development, 13:469–478.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lal, R. 2003. Global potential of soil carbon sequestration to mitigate the greenhouse effect. Critical Reviews in Plant Sciences, 22:151–184.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lal, R. 2004. Soil carbon sequestration impacts on global climate change and food security. Science, 304:1623–1627.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lehmann, J. 2007. Bio-energy in the black. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, 5:381–387.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lemus, R., and Lal, R. 2005. Bioenergy crops and carbon sequestration. Critical Reviews in Plant Sciences, 24:1–21.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lugo, A.E. 1992. Comparison of tropical tree plantations with secondary forests of similar age. Ecological Monographs, 62:1–41.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mann, L.K. 1986. Changes in soil carbon storage after cultivation. Soil Science, 142:279–288.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Marland, E., and Marland, G. 2003. The treatment of long-lived, carbon containing products in inventories of carbon dioxide emissions to the atmosphere. Environmental Science and Policy, 6:139–152.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Marland, G., Obersteiner, M., and Schlamadinger, B. 2007. The carbon benefits of fuels and forests. Science, 318:1066–1068.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McCarl, B.A., and Schneider, U.A. 2001. Greenhouse gas mitigation in U.S. agriculture and forestry. Science, 294:2481–2482.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McConkey, B.G., Liang, B.C., Padbury, G., and Heck, R. 2000. Prairie Soil Carbon Balance Project: Carbon sequestration from adoption of conservation cropping practices. Final rep. to GEMCo. Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Swift Current, Saskatchewan.
McGill, W.B., Dormaar, J.F., and Reinl-Dwyer, E. 1988. New perspectives on soil organic matter quality, quantity and dynamics on the Canadian Prairies. In Land degradation and conservation tillage. Proceedings of the 34th Annual CSSS/AIC Meeting, Calgary, Alberta, pp. 30–48.Google Scholar
Montgomery, D.R. 2007. Soil erosion and agricultural sustainability. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 104:13268–13272.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mooney, S., Antle, J., Capalbo, S., and Paustian, K. 2004. Influence of project scale and carbon variability on the costs of measuring soil carbon credits. Environmental Management, 33:S252–S263.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mosier, A.R. 1998. Soil processes and global change. Biology and Fertility of Soils, 27:221–229.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nabuurs, G.J., Masera, O., Andrasko, K., Benitez-Ponce, P., Boer, R., Dutschke, M.,…Zhang, X. 2007. Forestry. In Climate change 2007: Mitigation, ed. Metz, B., Davidson, O.R., Bosch, P.R., Dave, R., and Meyer, L.A.. Contribution of Working Group III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 541–584.Google Scholar
Nabuurs, G.J., and Mohren, G.M.J. 1993. Carbon fixation through forestation activities: A study of the carbon sequestering potential of selected forest types. IBN res. rep. 93/4. FACE/Institute for Forestry and Nature Research. Arnhem: The Netherlands: FACE.
Nair, P.K.R., and Nair, V.D. 2003. Carbon storage in North American agroforestry systems. In The potential of U.S. forest soils to sequester carbon and mitigate the greenhouse effect, ed. Kimble, J., Heath, L.S., Birdsey, R., and Lal, R.. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, pp. 343–346.Google Scholar
Odell, R.T., Melsted, S.W., and Walker, V.M. 1984. Changes in organic carbon and nitrogen of Morrow Plots under conventional treatments, 1904–1973. Soil Science Society of America Journal, 137:160–171.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Olson, J.S., Watts, J.A., and Allison, L.J. 1983. Carbon in live vegetation of major world ecosystems. Tech. rep. DOE/NBB-0037. Oak Ridge, TN: Oak Ridge National Laboratory.Google Scholar
Parton, W.J., Stewart, J.W.B., and Cole, C.V. 1988. Dynamics of C, N, P and S in grassland soils – a model. Biogeochemistry, 5:109–131.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Paul, K.I., Polglase, P.J., Nyakuengama, J.G., Khanna, P.K. 2002. Change in soil carbon following afforestation. Forest Ecology and Management, 168:241–257.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Paustian, K., Levine, E., Post, W.M., and Ryzhova, I.M. 1997. The use of models to integrate information and understanding of soil C at the regional scale. Geoderma, 79:227–260.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Paustian, K., Parton, W.J., and Persson, J. 1992. Modeling soil organic-matter in organic-amended and nitrogen-fertilized long-term plots. Soil Science Society of America Journal, 56:476–488.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Perlack, R.D., Wright, L.L., Turhollow, A.F., Graham, R.L., Stokes, B.J., and Erbach, D.C. 2005. Biomass as feedstock for a bioenergy and bioproducts industry: The technical feasibility of a billion-ton annual supply. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Energy and U.S. Department of Agriculture.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Post, W.M., Amonette, J.E., Birdsey, R., Garten, C.T., Izaurralde, R.C., Jardine, P.M.,…Metting, F.B. 2009. Terrestrial biological carbon sequestration: Science for enhancement and implementation. Geophysical Monograph, 183:73–88.Google Scholar
Post, W.M., Emanuel, W.R., Zinke, P.J., and Stangenberger, A.G. 1982. Soil carbon pools and world life zones. Nature, 298:156–159.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Post, W.M., and Kwon, K.C. 2000. Soil carbon sequestration and land-use change: Processes and potential. Global Change Biology, 6:317–327.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Powlson, D.S., Whitmore, A.P., and Goulding, K.W.T. 2011. Soil carbon sequestration to mitigate climate change: A critical re-examination to identify the true and the false. European Journal of Soil Science, 62:42–55.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Quinton, J.N., Govers, G., Van Oost, K., and Bardgett, R.D. 2010. The impact of agricultural soil erosion on biogeochemical cycling. Nature Geoscience, 3:311–314.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ragauskas, A.J., Williams, C.K., Davison, B.H., Britovsek, G., Cairney, J., Eckert, C.A.,…Tschaplinski, T. 2006. The path forward for biofuels and biomaterials. Science, 311:484–489.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Richter, D.D., Markewitz, D., Trumbore, S.E., and Wells, C.G. 1999. Rapid accumulation and turnover of soil carbon in a re-establishing forest. Science, 400:56–58.Google Scholar
Robertson, G.P., Dale, V.H., Doering, O.C., Hamburg, S.P., Melillo, J.M., Wander, M.M.,…Wilhelm, W.W. 2008. Sustainable biofuels redux. Science, 322:49–50.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Robertson, G.P., Paul, E.A., and Harwood, R.R. 2000. Greenhouse gases in intensive agriculture: Contributions of individual gases to the radiative forcing of the atmosphere. Science, 289:1922–1925.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schlamadinger, B., and Marland, G. 1999. Net effect of forest harvest on CO2 emissions to the atmosphere: A sensitivity analysis on the influence of time. Tellus B, 51:314–325.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schlesinger, W.H. 1997. Biogeochemistry: An analysis of global change, 2d ed. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Schlesinger, W.H. 1999. Carbon and agriculture: Carbon sequestration in soils. Science, 284:2095.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Searchinger, T., Heimlich, R., Houghton, R.A., Dong, F., Elobeid, A., Fabiosa, J.,…Yu, T.-H. 2008. Use of U.S. croplands for biofuels increases greenhouse gases through emissions from land-use change. Science, 319:1238–1240.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Six, J., Frey, S.D., Thiet, R.K., and Batten, K.M. 2006. Bacterial and fungal contributions to carbon sequestration in agroecosystems. Soil Science Society of America Journal, 70:555–569.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smith, J.E., and Heath, L.S. 2001. Carbon stocks and projections on public forestlands in the United States, 1952–2040. Environmental Management, 33:433–442.Google Scholar
Smith, P., Martino, D., Cai, Z., Gwary, D., Janzen, H., Kumar, P.,…Smith, J. 2008. Greenhouse gas mitigation in agriculture. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society: Biological Sciences, 363:789–813.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Snyder, C.S., Bruulsema, T.W., Jensen, T.L., and Fixen, P.E. 2009. Review of greenhouse gas emissions from crop production systems and fertilizer management effects. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, 41:1270–1280.Google Scholar
Stallard, R.F. 1998. Terrestrial sedimentation and the carbon cycle: Coupling weathering and erosion to carbon burial. Global Biogeochemical Cycles, 12:231–257.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stewart, C.E., Paustian, K., Conant, R.T., Plante, A.F., and Six, J. 2007. Soil carbon saturation: Concept, evidence and evaluation. Biogeochemistry, 86: 19–31, .CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sun, B., and Sohngen, B. 2009. Set-asides for carbon sequestration: Implications for permanence and leakage. Climatic Change, 96: 409–419, .CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thomson, A.M., Izaurralde, R.C., Smith, S.J., and Clarke, L.E. 2008. Integrated estimates of global terrestrial carbon sequestration. Global Environmental Change, 18:192–203.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tilman, D., Socolow, R., Foley, J.A., Hill, J., Larson, E., Lynd, L.,…Williams, R. 2009. Beneficial biofuels – the food, energy, and environment trilemma. Science, 325:270–271.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tuskan, G.A., and Walsh, M.E. 2001. Short-rotation crop systems, atmospheric carbon dioxide and carbon management: A US case study. Forestry Chronicle, 77:259–264.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Van Hemelryck, H., Fiener, P., Van Oost, K., and Govers, G. 2009. The effect of soil redistribution on soil organic carbon: An experimental study. Biogeosciences, 6:5031–5071.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Van Wesemael, B., Paustian, K., Meersmans, J., Goidts, E., Barancikova, G., and Easter, M. 2010. Agricultural management explains historic changes in regional soil carbon stocks. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 107:14926–14930.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Watson, R.T., Noble, I.R., Bolin, B., Ravindranath, N.H., Verardo, D.J., and Dokken, D.J., eds. 2000. Land use, land-use change, and forestry: A special report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
West, T.O., Bandaru, V., Brandt, C.C., Schuh, A.E., and Ogle, S.M. 2011. Regional uptake and release of crop carbon in the United States. Biogeosciences, 8:631–654, .CrossRefGoogle Scholar
West, T.O., Brandt, C.C., Baskaran, L.M., Hellwinckel, C.M., Mueller, R., Bernacchi, C.J.,…Post, W.M. 2010. Cropland carbon fluxes in the United States: Increasing geospatial resolution of inventory-based carbon accounting. Ecological Applications, 20:1074–1086.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
West, T.O., and Marland, G. 2002. A synthesis of carbon sequestration, carbon emissions, and net carbon flux in agriculture: Comparing tillage practices in the United States. Agriculture, Ecosystems, and Environment, 91:217–232.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
West, T.O., and Marland, G. 2003. Net carbon flux from agriculture: Carbon emissions, carbon sequestration, crop yield, and land-use change. Biogeochemistry, 6:73–83.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
West, T.O., and Post, W.M. 2002. Soil organic carbon sequestration rates by tillage and crop rotation: A global data analysis. Soil Science Society of America Journal, 66:1930–1946.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
West, T.O., and Six, J. 2007. Considering the influence of sequestration duration and carbon saturation on estimates of soil carbon capacity. Climatic Change, 80:25–41, .CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Westerling, A.L., Hidalgo, H.G., Cayan, D.R., and Swetnam, T.W. 2006. Warming and earlier spring increase western US forest wildfire activity. Science, 313:940–943.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Williams, M. 2003. Deforesting the Earth: From prehistory to global crisis: An abridgement. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Wise, M., Calvin, K., Thomson, A., Clarke, L., Bond-Lamberty, B., Sands, R.,…Edmonds, J. 2009. Implications of limiting CO2 concentrations for land use and energy. Science, 324:1183–1186.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Woodbury, P.B., Heath, L.S., and Smith, J.E. 2006. Land use change effects on forest carbon cycling throughout the southern United States. Journal of Environmental Quality, 35:1348–1363.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wright, L.L., and Hughes, E.E. 1993. U.S. carbon offset potential using biomass energy systems. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution, 70(1):483–497.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zaman, M., Saggar, S., Blennerhassett, J.D., and Singh, J. 2009. Effect of urease and nitrification inhibitors on N transformation, gaseous emissions of ammonia and nitrous oxide, pasture yield and N uptake in grazed pasture system. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, 41:1270–1280.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zan, C.S., Fyles, J.W., Girouard, P., and Samson, R.A. 2001. Carbon sequestration in perennial bioenergy, annual corn and uncultivated systems in southern Quebec. Agriculture, Ecosystems, and Environment, 86:135–44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zhao, M., and Running, S.W. 2010. Drought-induced reduction in global terrestrial net primary production from 2000 through 2009. Science, 329:940–943.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zvomuya, F., Janzen, H.H., Larney, F.J., and Olson, B.M. 2008. A long-term field bioassay of soil quality indicators in a semiarid environment. Soil Science Society of America Journal, 72:683–692.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure coreplatform@cambridge.org is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×