Achen, Christopher H. 1986. The Statistical Analysis of Quasi-Experiments. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.Google Scholar

Adler, Nancy E. and Stewart, Judith. 2010. “Health Disparities Across the Lifespan: Meaning, Methods, and Mechanisms.” Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences: The Biology of Disadvantage 1186: 5–23.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Angrist, Joshua D. and Jörn-Steffen, Pischke. 2009. Mostly Harmless Econometrics: An Empiricist Companion. Princeton University Press.Google Scholar

Baron, Reuben M. and Kenny, David A.. 1986. “The Moderator–Mediator Variable Distinction in Social Psychological Research: Conceptual, Strategic, and Statistical Considerations.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 51(6): 1173–82.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Baum, Lawrence. 1997. The Puzzle of Judicial Behavior. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press.Google Scholar

Baum, Lawrence 2006. Judges and Their Audiences: A Perspective on Judicial Behavior. Princeton University Press.Google Scholar

Beck, Nathaniel, Katz, Jonathan N., and Tucker, Richard. 1998. “Taking Time Seriously: Time-Series-Cross-Section Analysis with a Binary Dependent Variable.” American Journal of Political Science 42(4): 1260–88.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Bennett, Andrew. 2010. “Process Tracing and Causal Inference.” In Rethinking Causal Inference: Diverse Tools, Shared Standards, ed. Brady, Henry and Collier, David. 2nd edition. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 207–21.Google Scholar

Berry, Frances S. and Berry, William D.. 1990. “State Lottery Adoptions as Policy Innovations: An Event History Analysis.” American Political Science Review 84(2): 395–415.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Brady, Henry E. and Collier, David, eds. 2004. Rethinking Social Inquiry: Diverse Tools, Shared Standards. New York: Rowman & Littlefield.

Brady, Henry E. and Collier, David, eds. 2010. Rethinking Social Inquiry: Diverse Tools, Shared Standards. 2nd edition. New York: Rowman & Littlefield.

Burton, Steven J. 1992. Judging in Good Faith. Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Cartwright, Nancy and Hardie, Jeremy. 2012. Evidence-Based Policy: A Practical Guide to Doing It Better. New York: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Chapin, Charles. 1924. “Deaths among Taxpayers and Non-Taxpayers, Income Tax, Providence, 1865.” American Journal of Public Health 14(8): 647–51.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Chatfield, Chris. 1995. “Model Uncertainty, Data Mining, and Statistical Inference.” Journal of Royal Statistical Society, Series A (Statistics in Society) 158(3): 419–66.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Collier, David. 2011. “Understanding Process Tracing.” PS: Political Science & Politics 44(4): 823–30.Google Scholar

Collier, David, Brady, Henry E., and Seawright, Jason. 2004. “Sources of Leverage in Causal Inference: Toward an Alternative View of Methodology.” In Rethinking Causal Inference: Diverse Tools, Shared Standards, ed. Henry Brady and David Collier. 2nd edition. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield, 229–66.Google Scholar

Collier, Paul and Hoeffler, Anke. 2004. “Greed and Grievance in Civil War.” Oxford Economic Papers 56(4): 563–95.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Coombs, Lolagene C. 1941. “Economic Differentials in Causes of Death.” Medical Care 1: 246–55.Google Scholar

Cushman, Barry. 1998. Rethinking the New Deal Court: The Structure of a Constitutional Revolution. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar

Deaton, Angus. 2002. “Policy Implications of the Gradient of Health and Wealth.” Health Affairs 21(2): 13–30.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Dworkin, Ronald. 1978. Taking Rights Seriously. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar

Elster, Jon. 2007. Explaining Social Behavior: More Nuts and Bolts for the Social Sciences. New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Epstein, Lee, Landes, William M, and Posner, Richard A.. 2013. The Behavior of Federal Judges: A Theoretical & Empirical Study. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar

Fearon, James D. 1995. “Rationalist Explanations for War.” International Organization 49(3): 379–414.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Freedman, David A. 1991. “Statistical Models and Shoe Leather.” Sociological Methodology 21: 291–313.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Freese, Jeremy and Lutfey, Karen E.. 2011. “Fundamental Causality: Challenges of an Animating Concept for Medical Sociology.” In Handbook of Medical Sociology, ed. Pescosolido, B., Martin, J., McLeod, J., and Rogers, A.. New York: Springer, 67–81.Google Scholar

Geddes, Barbara. 1990. “How the Cases You Choose Affect the Answers You Get: Selection Bias in Comparative Politics.” Political Analysis 2(1): 131–50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Geertz, Clifford. 1973. “Thick Description: Toward an Interpretive Theory of Culture.” In The Interpretation of Cultures. New York: Basic Books, 3–30.Google Scholar

George, Alexander L. and Bennett, Andrew. 2005. Case Studies and Theory Development in the Social Sciences. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar

Gerber, Alan, Green, Donald, and Kaplan, Edward. 2004. “The Illusion of Learning from Observational Data.” In Problems and Methods in the Study of Politics, ed. Shapiro, Ian, Smith, Rogers, and Masoud, Tarek. Cambridge University Press, 251–73.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Gerring, John. 2004. “What Is a Case Study and What Is It Good For?” American Political Science Review 98(2): 341–54.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Gerring, John 2007. Case Study Research: Principles and Practices. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Gerring, John 2008. “The Mechanismic Worldview: Thinking Inside the Box.” British Journal of Political Science 38(1): 161–79.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Gerring, John 2010. “Causal Mechanisms: Yes, But…” Comparative Political Studies 43(11): 1499–526.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Gerring, John 2012. Social Science Methodology: A Unified Framework. 2nd edition. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Gillman, Howard. 1993. The Constitution Besieged: The Rise and Demise of Lochner Era Police Powers Jurisprudence. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.Google Scholar

Gillman, Howard 1996. “More on the Origins of the Fuller Court's Jurisprudence: The Scope of Federal Power over Commerce and Manufacturing in Nineteenth-Century Constitutional Law.” Political Research Quarterly 49: 415–37.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Gillman, Howard 2001. The Votes that Counted: How the Court Decided the 2000 Presidential Election. University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar

Glynn, Adam N. and Ichino, Nahomi. 2012. “Increasing Inferential Leverage in the Comparative Method: Placebo Tests in Small-n Research.” October version. Available at

Gray, Virginia. 1973. “Innovation in the States: A Diffusion Study.” American Political Science Review 67(4): 1174–85.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Gray, Virginia 1994. “Competition, Emulation, and Policy Innovation.” In New Perspectives on American Politics, ed. Dodd, L. and Jillson, C.. Washington, DC: CQ Press, 230–48.Google Scholar

Gu, Xing S. and Rosenbaum, Paul R.. 1993. “Comparison of Multivariate Matching Methods: Structures, Distances, and Algorithms.” Journal of Computational and Graphical Statistics 2(4): 405–20.Google Scholar

Heckman, James J. and Smith, Jeffrey A.. 1995. “Assessing the Case for Social Experiments.” Journal of Economic Perspectives 9(2): 85–110.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Hedstrom, Peter. 2005. Dissecting the Social: On the Principles of Analytical Sociology. Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Hedstrom, Peter and Ylikoski, Petri. 2010. “Causal Mechanisms in the Social Sciences.” Annual Review of Sociology 36: 49–67.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Ho, Daniel E., Imai, Kosuke, King, Gary, and Stuart, Elizabeth A.. 2007. “Matching as Nonparametric Preprocessing for Reducing Model Dependence in Parametric Causal Inference.” Political Analysis 15(3): 199–236.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Imai, Kosuke, Keele, Luke, and Tingley, Dustin. 2010. “A General Approach to Causal Mediation Analysis.” Psychological Methods (15)4: 309–34.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Imai, Kosuke, Keele, Luke, Tingley, Dustin, and Yamamoto, Teppei. 2011. “Unpacking the Black Box of Causality: Learning about Causal Mechanisms from Experimental and Observational Studies.” American Political Science Review 105(4): 765–89.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Imai, Kosuke, Tingley, Dustin, and Yamamoto, Teppei. 2013. “Experimental Designs for Identifying Causal Mechanisms.” Journal of the Royal Statistical Society A 176, Part 1: 5–51.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Imai, Kosuke and Yamamoto, Teppei. 2013. “Identification and Sensitivity Analysis for Multiple Causal Mechanisms: Revisiting Evidence from Framing Experiments.” Political Analysis 21(2): 141–71.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Kantor, David. 2006. “MAHAPICK: Stata Module to Select Matching Observation Based on a Mahalanobis Distance Measure.” Statistical Software Components S456703, Boston College Department of Economics, revised November 15, 2012.

King, Gary, Keohane, Robert O., and Verba, Sidney. 1994. Designing Social Inquiry: Scientific Inference in Qualitative Research. Princeton University Press.Google Scholar

Kiser, Edgar and Hechter, Michael. 1991. “The Role of General Theory in Comparative-Historical Sociology.” American Journal of Sociology 97(1): 1–30.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Kittel, Bernhard and Winner, Hannes. 2005. “How Reliable Is Pooled Analysis in Political Economy? The Globalization–Welfare State Nexus Revisited.” European Journal of Political Research 44(2): 269–93.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Link, Bruce G. and Phelan, Jo. 1995. “Social Conditions as Fundamental Causes of Disease.” Journal of Health and Social Behavior (Extra Issue) 35: 80–94.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Link, Bruce G. and Phelan, Jo 1996. “Understanding Sociodemographic Differences in Health: The Role of Fundamental Social Causes.” American Journal of Public Health 86(4): 471–73.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Link, Bruce G. and Phelan, Jo 2002. “McKeown and the Idea that Social Conditions are the Fundamental Causes of Disease.” American Journal of Public Health 92(5): 730–32.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Link, Bruce G. and Phelan, Jo 2005. “Fundamental Sources of Health Inequalities.” In Policy Challenges in Modern Health Care, ed. Mechanic, David, Rogut, Lynn B., Colby, David C., and Knickman, James R.. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 71–84.Google Scholar

Lu, Bo, Greevy, Robert, Xu, Xinyi, and Beck, Cole. 2011. “Optimal Nonbipartite Matching and Its Statistical Applications.” American Statistician 65(1): 21–30.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Lutfey, Karen and Freese, Jeremy. 2005. “Toward Some Fundamentals of Fundamental Causality: Socioeconomic Status and Health in the Routine Clinic Visit for Diabetes.” American Journal of Sociology 110(5): 1326–72.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Mahoney, James and Goertz, Gary. 2006. “A Tale of Two Cultures: Contrasting Quantitative and Qualitative Research.” Political Analysis 14(3): 227–49.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Malhotra, Neil and Krosnick, Jon A.. 2007. “The Effect of Survey Mode and Sampling on Inferences about Political Attitudes and Behavior: Comparing the 2000 and 2004 ANES to Internet Surveys with Nonprobability Samples.” Political Analysis 15: 286–323.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Marmot, Michael G. 2004. The Status Syndrome: How Social Standing Affects Our Health and Longevity. New York: Holt Paperbacks.Google Scholar

Marmot, Michael G. and Shipley, Martin J.. 1996. “Do Socioeconomic Differences in Mortality Persist after Retirement? 25 Year Follow Up of Civil Servants from the First Whitehall Study.” British Medical Journal 313(7066): 1177–80.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Marmot, Michael G., Shipley, Martin J., and Rose, Geoffrey. 1984. “Inequalities in Death: Specific Explanations of a General Pattern?” The Lancet 323(8384): 1003–06.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Mayntz, Renate. 2004. “Mechanisms in the Analysis of Social Macro-Phenomena.” Philosophy of the Social Sciences 34(2): 237–59.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Meara, Ellen R., Richards, Seth, and Cutler, David M.. 2008. “The Gap Gets Bigger: Changes in Mortality and Life Expectancy, by Education, 1981–2000.” Health Affairs 27(2): 350–60.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Mechanic, David. 2000. “Rediscovering the Social Determinants of Health.” Health Affairs 19(3): 3269–76.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Mechanic, David 2002. “Disadvantage, Inequality, and Social Policy.” Health Affairs 21(2): 48–59.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Nielsen, Richard. 2014. “Case Selection Via Matching.” Unpublished manuscript. Last version revised January 31, 2014. Available at

Norkus, Zenonas. 2004. “Mechanism as Miracle Makers? The Rise and Inconsistencies of the ‘Mechanismic Approach’ in Social Science and History.” History and Theory 44(3): 348–72.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Pappas, Gregory, Queen, Susan, Hadden, Wilbur, and Fisher, Gail. 1993. “The Increasing Disparity in Mortality between Socioeconomic Groups in the United States, 1960 and 1986.” New England Journal of Medicine 329(2): 103–09.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Pearl, Judea. 2009. Causality: Models, Reasoning, and Inference. 2nd edition. Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Pritchett, C. Herman. 1948. The Roosevelt Court. New York: Macmillan.Google Scholar

Ragin, Charles. 2000. Fuzzy Set Social Science. University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar

Rohde, David W. and Spaeth, Harold J.. 1976. Supreme Court Decision Making. San Francisco, CA: Freeman.Google Scholar

Rosenbaum, Paul R. and Rubin, Donald B.. 1983. “The Central Role of the Propensity Score in Observational Studies for Causal Effects.” Biometrika 70(1): 41–55.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Rosenbaum, Paul R. and Rubin, Donald B. 1984. “Reducing Bias in Observational Studies Using Subclassification on the Propensity Score.” Journal of the American Statistical Association 79(387): 516–24.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Rosenbaum, Paul R. and Silber, Jeffrey H.. 2001. “Matching and Thick Description in an Observational Study of Mortality after Surgery.” Biostatistics 2(2): 217–32.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Ross, Michael L. 2004. “How Do Natural Resources Influence Civil War? Evidence from Thirteen Cases.” International Organization 58(1): 35–67.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Rubin, Donald B. 2006. Matched Sampling for Causal Effects. Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Rubin, Donald B. 2008. “For Objective Causal Inference, Design Trumps Analysis.” Annals of Applied Statistics 2(3): 808–40.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Rubin, Donald B. and Thomas, Neal. 2000. “Combining Propensity Score Matching with Additional Adjustments for Prognostic Covariates.” Journal of the American Statistical Association 95(45): 573–85.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Schubert, Glendon. 1965. The Judicial Mind: The Attitudes and Ideologies of Supreme Court Justices 1946–1963. Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press.Google Scholar

Seawright, Jason and Gerring, John. 2008. “Case Selection Techniques in Case Study Research: A Menu of Qualitative and Quantitative Options.” Political Research Quarterly 61(2): 294–308.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Segal, Jeffrey A., Cameron, Charles M., and Songer, Donald R.. 1995. “Decision Making on the U.S. Courts of Appeals.” In Contemplating Courts, ed. Epstein, Lee. Washington, DC: CQ Press, 227–46.Google Scholar

Segal, Jeffrey A. and Cover, Albert D.. 1989. “Ideological Values and Votes of U.S. Supreme Court Justices.” American Political Science Review 83: 557–65.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Segal, Jeffrey A. and Spaeth, Harold J.. 1993. The Supreme Court and the Attitudinal Model. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Segal, Jeffrey A 2002. The Supreme Court and the Attitudinal Model Revisited. New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Simmons,  Beth A., Dobbin, Frank, and Garrett, Geoffrey. 2006. “Introduction: The International Diffusion of Liberalism.” International Organization 60(3): 781–810.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Simmons,  Beth A., Dobbin, Frank, and Garrett, Geoffrey 2008. The Global Diffusion of Markets and Democracy. New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Simmons, Beth A. and Elkins, Zachary. 2004. “The Globalization of Liberalization: Policy Diffusion in the International Political Economy.” American Political Science Review 98(1): 171–90.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Spaeth, Harold J. and Segal, Jeffrey A.. 1999. Majority Rule or Minority Will: Adherence to Precedent on the U.S. Supreme Court. New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Stuart, Elizabeth A. and Rubin, Donald B.. 2007. “Best Practices in Quasi-Experimental Designs: Matching Methods for Causal Inference.” In Best Practices in Quantitative Social Science, ed. Osborne, J.. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 155–76.Google Scholar

Volden, Craig, Ting, Michael M., and Carpenter, Daniel P.. 2008. “A Formal Model of Learning and Policy Diffusion.” American Political Science Review 102(3): 319–32.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Waldner, David. 2007. “Transforming Inferences into Explanations: Lessons from the Study of Mass Extinctions.” In Theory and Evidence in Comparative Politics and International Relations, ed. Lebow, R. N. and Lichbach, M. I.. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 145–76.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Waldner, David 2012. “Process Tracing and Causal Mechanisms.” In The Oxford Handbook of Philosophy and Social Science, ed. Kinkaid, Harold. New York: Oxford University Press, 65–84.Google Scholar

Winship, Christopher and Sobel, Michael. 2004. “Causal Inference in Sociological Studies.” In Handbook of Data Analysis, ed. Hardy, Melissa A. and Bryman, Alan. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 481–503.Google Scholar