Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-848d4c4894-mwx4w Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-06-16T13:45:11.643Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

9 - Fern conservation

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  05 June 2012

By
Klaus Mehltreter
Edited by
Klaus Mehltreter ,
Lawrence R. Walker  and
Joanne M. Sharpe
Klaus Mehltreter
Affiliation:
Instituto de Ecología
Klaus Mehltreter
Affiliation:
Instituto de Ecologia, A.C., Xalapa, Mexico
Lawrence R. Walker
Affiliation:
University of Nevada, Las Vegas
Get access

Summary

Key points

  1. 1. Extant ferns and lycophytes are ecologically important and contribute 4% of the vascular plant diversity on Earth but currently face an unprecedented threat caused mainly by human disturbances such as fire or land use change. Few fern species benefit from these disturbances, and most become less abundant or locally extinct.

  2. 2. Current risk assessments for ferns are mainly based on abundance and geographic range. Risk assessments improve when additional ecological characteristics (e.g., habitat specificity, intrinsic biological factors, population dynamics and environmental disturbances) are considered.

  3. 3. By 2008 a global risk assessment had been completed for only 2% of the 11 000 species of ferns and lycophytes; 89% of these ferns were considered to be at risk. Global risk assessment of ferns is geographically biased toward Ecuador and China and taxonomically biased toward nine of c. 300 extant genera.

  4. 4. A mixed approach of habitat protection for hot spots of fern diversity and in situ protection of endangered fern species outside such hot spots is recommended as a management strategy for fern conservation. Ex situ cultivation of endangered fern species may supplement in situ protection efforts but should not replace them.

Introduction

Extant plants and animals likely represent only 1–2% of all organisms that have ever existed on our planet during the last 450 million years (May et al., 1995) because extinction is common.

Type
Chapter
Information
Fern Ecology , pp. 323 - 359
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2010

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Ambrosio, S. T. and Melo, N. F. (2001). New records of pteridophytes in the semi-arid region of Brazil. American Fern Journal, 91, 227–9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Arcand, N. N. and Ranker, T. (2008). Conservation Biology. In Biology and Evolution of Ferns and Lycophytes, ed. Ranker, T. A. and Haufler, C. H.. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, pp. 257–83.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ayensu, E. S. (1981). Assessment of threatened plant species in the United States. In The Biological Aspects of Rare Plant Conservation, ed. Synge, H.. New York: John Wiley, pp. 19–58.Google Scholar
Bach, K., Kessler, M. and Gradstein, S. R. (2007). A simulation approach to determine statistical significance of species turnover peaks in a species-rich tropical cloud forest. Diversity and Distributions, 13, 863–70.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baillie, J. E. M., Hilton-Taylor, C. and Stuart, S. N. (eds.) (2004). 2004 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. A Global Species Assessment. Gland, Switzerland, and Cambridge, UK: IUCN.
Ballesteros, D., Estrelles, E. and Ibars, A. M. (2006). Responses of pteridophyte spores to ultrafreezing temperatures for long-term conservation in germplasm banks. Fern Gazette, 17, 293–302.Google Scholar
Bannister, P. and Wildish, K. L. (1982). Light compensation points and specific leaf areas in some New Zealand ferns. New Zealand Journal of Botany, 20, 421–4.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Benemann, J. (1996). Freilanduntersuchungen zum Gaswechsel ausgewählter gefährdeter Farne. Unpublished Diploma thesis, Ruhr-Universität Bochum, Germany.
Bennert, H. W. (1999). Die seltenen und gefährdeten Farnpflanzen Deutschlands. Biologie, Verbeitung, Schutz. Bonn: Bundesamt für Naturschutz.Google Scholar
Bennert, H. W. and Danzebrink, B. (1996). Spore germination of endangered pteridophytes in Germany. Verhandlungen der Gesellschaft für Ökologie, 26, 197–207.Google Scholar
Beukema, H. and Noordwijk, M. (2004). Terrestrial pteridophytes as indicators of a forest-like environment in rubber production systems in the lowlands of Jambi, Sumatra. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment, 104, 63–73.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bickford, S. A. and Laffan, S. W. (2006). Multi-extent analysis of the relationship between pteridophyte species richness and climate. Global Ecology and Biogeography, 15, 588–601.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boutin, C., Jobin, B. and Belanger, L. (2003). Importance of riparian habitats to flora conservation in farming landscapes of southern Quebec, Canada. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment, 94, 73–87.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brigham, C. A. and Schwartz, M. A. (eds.) (2003). Population Viability in Plants: Conservation, Management and Modeling of Rare Plants. Ecological Studies, 165. Berlin: Springer-Verlag.CrossRef
Brodribb, T. J. and Holbrook, N. M. (2004). Stomatal protection against hydraulic failure: a comparison of coexisting ferns and angiosperms. New Phytologist, 162, 663–70.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brodribb, T. J., Holbrook, N. M., Zwienickii, M. A. and Palma, B. (2005). Leaf hydraulic capacity in ferns, conifers and angiosperms: impacts on photosynthetic maxima. New Phytologist, 165, 839–46.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brodribb, T. J., Field, T. S. and Jordan, G. J. (2007). Leaf maximum photosynthetic rate and venation are linked by hydraulics. Plant Physiology, 144, 1890–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Camus, J. M. and Pryor, K. V. (1996). The pteridophyte flora of Sulawesi, Indonesia. In Pteridology in Perspective, ed. Camus, J. M., Gibby, M. and Johns, R. J.. Kew, UK: Royal Botanic Gardens, pp. 169–170.Google Scholar
Chan, L. (2002). Plant conservation initiatives in Singapore. In Plant Conservation in the Tropics: Perspectives and Practice, ed. Maunder, M., Clubbe, C., Hankamer, C. and Groves, M.. Kew, UK: Royal Botanic Gardens, pp. 171–83.Google Scholar
Cheffings, C. M. and Farrell, L. (eds.) (2005). The Vascular Plant Red Data List for Great Britain. Species Status, 7. Peterborough: Joint Nature Conservation Committee.
,China Plant Specialist Group (2004). Adiantum lianxianense. In 2008 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, ed. IUCN. www.iucnredlist.org. Viewed January 2009.
Chiou, W. L., Huang, Y. M. and Chen, C. M. (2006). Conservation of two endangered ferns, Archangiopteris somai and A. itoi (Marattiaceae, Pteridophyta), by propagation from stipules. Fern Gazette, 17, 271–78.Google Scholar
,CITES (2008). Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora. www.cites.org. Viewed January 2009.
Colling, G. (2005). Red list of the vascular plants of Luxembourg. Ferrantia, 42, 1–77.Google Scholar
Cronk, Q. C. B. (1992). Relict floras of Atlantic islands: patterns assessed. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 46, 91–103.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Winter, W. P. and Amoroso, V. B. (eds.) (2003). Cryptogams: Ferns and Fern Allies, Plant Resources of South-East Asia, 15. Leiden, The Netherlands: Backhuys.
,Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts (2007). Tree Fern Management Plan for the Sustainable Harvesting, Transporting or Trading of Dicksonia antarctica in Tasmania. Australian Government, Canberra. www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/trade-use/sources/management-plans/treefern-tas/pubs/treefern-tas.pdf. Viewed January 2009.
,Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts (2009). EPBC Act List of Threatened Flora. Australian Government, Canberra. www.environment.gov.au/cgi-bin/sprat/public/sprat.pl. Viewed January 2009.
Diamond, J. M. (1975). The island dilemma: lessons of modern biogeographic studies for the design of natural preserves. Biological Conservation, 7, 129–46.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Diamond, J. M. (1986). The design of a nature reserve system for Indonesian New Guinea. In Conservation Biology: the Science of Scarcity and Diversity, ed. Soulé, M.. Sunderland, MA, USA: Sinauer Associates.Google Scholar
Drake, D. R. and Pratt, L. W. (2001). Seedling mortality in Hawaiian rain forest: the role of small-scale physical disturbance. Biotropica, 33, 319–23.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Durand, L. Z. and Goldstein, G. (2001). Photosynthesis, photoinhibition, and nitrogen use efficiency in native and invasive tree ferns in Hawaii. Oecologia, 126, 345–54.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dyer, A. F. (1994). Natural soil spore banks: can they be used to retrieve lost ferns?Biodiversity and Conservation, 3, 160–75.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dyer, A. F. and Lindsay, S. (1992). Soil spore banks of temperate ferns. American Fern Journal, 82, 89–123.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dyer, A. F. and Lindsay, S. (1996). Soil spore banks: a new resource for conservation. In Pteridology in Perspective, ed. Camus, J. M., Gibby, M. and Johns, R. J.. Kew, UK: Royal Botanic Gardens, pp. 153–60.Google Scholar
Ehrlich, P. and Ehrlich, A. (1981). Extinction. New York: Random House.Google Scholar
Fernández, H. and Revilla, M. A. (2003). In vitro culture of ornamental ferns. Plant Cell, Tissue and Organ Culture, 73, 1–13.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fernández, R. and Vail, R. (2003). New records for Platycerium andinum Baker in Peru. American Fern Journal, 93, 160–3.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Figueiredo, E. and Gascoigne, A. (2001). Conservation of pteridophytes in São Tomé e Príncipe (Gulf of Guinea). Biodiversity and Conservation, 10, 45–68.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
,Flora of Australia Online (2009). Australian Biological Resources Study, Canberra. www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/abrs/online-resources/flora/main/index.html. Viewed January 2009.
Franklin, J. F., Bledsoe, C. S. and Callahan, J. T. (1990). Contributions of the Long-Term Ecological Research Program. BioScience, 40, 509–23.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gardette, E. (1996). Microhabitats of epiphytic fern communities in large lowland rain forest plots in Sumatra. In Pteridology in Perspective, ed. Camus, J. M., Gibby, M. and Johns, R. J.. Kew, UK: Royal Botanic Gardens, pp. 655–8.Google Scholar
Giers, A., Heiser, T. and Bennert, H. W. (1996). Freilanduntersuchungen zum Gaswechsel einheimischer Farnarten. Verhandlungen der Gesellschaft für Ökologie, 25, 277–85.Google Scholar
Gilman, A. V. (2004). Botrychium pallidum newly discovered in Maine. American Fern Journal, 94, 155–6.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Given, D. R. (1993). Changing aspects of endemism and endangerment in Pteridophyta. Journal of Biogeography, 20, 293–302.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Given, D. R. (1994). Principles and Practice of Plant Conservation. Portland, OR, USA: Timber Press.Google Scholar
Gliessman, S. R. (1978). The establishment of bracken following fire in tropical habitats. American Fern Journal, 68, 41–4.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Greuter, W. (1995). Extinctions in Mediterranean areas. In Extinction Rates, ed. Lawton, J. H. and May, R. M.. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, pp. 88–97.Google Scholar
Hanski, I., Kouki, J. and Halkka, A. (1993). Three explanations of the positive relationship between distribution and abundance of species. In Species Diversity in Ecological Communities: Historical and Geographical Perspectives, ed. Ricklefs, R. and Schluter, S.. Chicago, IL, USA: University of Chicago Press, pp. 108–16.Google Scholar
Hartley, S. and Kunin, W. A. (2003). Scale dependency of rarity, extinction risk, and conservation priority. Conservation Biology, 17, 1559–70.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hegde, S. and D'Souza, L. (1996). In vitro propagation of Drynaria quercifolia, an endangered fern. In Pteridology in Perspective, ed. Camus, J. M., Gibby, M. and Johns, R. J.. Kew, UK: Royal Botanic Gardens, pp. 171.Google Scholar
Heiser, T., Giers, A. and Bennert, H. W. (1996). In situ gas exchange measurements and adaptations to the light regime in three species of Lycopodium. In Pteridology in Perspective, ed. Camus, J. M., Gibby, M. and Johns, R. J.. Kew, UK: Royal Botanic Gardens, pp. 599–610.Google Scholar
Hietz, P. and Briones, O. (2001). Photosynthesis, chlorophyll fluorescence and within-canopy distribution of epiphytic ferns in a Mexican cloud forest. Plant Biology, 3, 279–87.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Horn, S. P. (1988). Effect of burning on a montane mire in the Cordillera de Talamanca, Costa Rica. Brenesia, 30, 81–92.Google Scholar
Horn, S. P. (1989). Post-fire vegetation development in the Costa Rica páramos. Madroño, 36, 93–114.Google Scholar
Hoshizaki, B. J. and Moran, R. C. (2001). The Fern Grower's Manual, revised and expanded edition. Portland, OR, USA: Timber Press.Google Scholar
Hsu, T.-W., Moore, S.-J. and Chiang, T.-Y. (2000). Low RAPD polymorphism in Archangiopteris itoi, a rare and endemic fern in Taiwan. Botanical Bulletin of Academia Sinica, 41, 15–8.Google Scholar
Hubbell, S. P. (2001). The Unified Neutral Theory of Biodiversity and Biogeography. Princeton, NJ, USA: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Hunt, M. A., Davidson, N. J., Unwin, G. L. and Close, D. C. (2002). Ecophysiology of the Soft Tree Fern Dicksonia antarctica Labill. Austral Ecology, 27, 360–8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hutchinson, G. E. and MacArthur, R. H. (1959). A theoretical ecological model of size distributions among species of animals. American Naturalist, 93, 117–25.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
,IUCN (2001). IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria: Version 3.1. Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK: IUCN Species Survival Commission.Google Scholar
,IUCN (2003). Guidelines for Application of IUCN Red List Criteria at Regional Levels: Version 3.0. Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK: IUCN Species Survival Commission.Google Scholar
,IUCN (2008). 2008 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. www.iucnredlist.org. Viewed January 2009.
,IUCN Standards and Petitions Working Group (2008). Guidelines for Using the IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria. Version 7.0. Prepared by the Standards and Petitions Working Group of the IUCN SSC Biodiversity Assessments Sub-Committee in August 2008. intranet.iucn.org/webfiles/doc/SSC/RedList/RedListGuidelines.pdf. Viewed January 2009.
Jablonski, D. (1995). Extinctions in the fossil record. In Extinction Rates, ed. Lawton, J. H. and May, R. M.. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, pp. 25–44.Google Scholar
Jamison, J. A. and Douglas, G. W. (1998). Status of the coastal wood fern, Dryopteris arguta (Dryopteridaceae) in Canada. Canadian Field-Naturalist, 112, 284–8.Google Scholar
,J-IBIS (1997). Japan Integrated Biodiversity Information System. Ministry of the Environment. www.biodic.go.jp/english/rdb/rdb_f. Viewed January 2009.
Kang, M., Pan, L., Yao, X. and Huang, H. (2006). Development and characterization of polymorphic microsatellite loci in endangered fern Adiantum reniforme var. sinense. Conservation Genetics, 7, 807–10.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kessler, M., Betz, L. and Roedde, S. (2006). Red List of the Pteridophytes of Bolivia. www.fernsofbolivia.uni-goettingen.de. Viewed January 2009.
Kingston, N. and Waldren, S. (2002). A conservation assessment of the pteridophyte flora of the Pitcairn Islands. Fern Gazette, 16, 404–10.Google Scholar
Kornás, J. (1977). Life-forms and seasonal patterns in the pteridophytes in Zambia. Acta Societatis Botanicorum Poloniae, 46, 668–90.Google Scholar
Kornás, J. (1978). Fire-resistance in the pteridophytes of Zambia. Fern Gazette, 11, 373–84.Google Scholar
Korneck, D., Schnittler, M. and Vollmer, I. (1996). Rote Liste der Farn- und Blütenpflanzen (Pteridophyta et Spermatophyta) Deutschlands. Schriftenreihe für Vegetationskunde, 28, 21–187.Google Scholar
Lawton, J. H. (1995). Population dynamic principles. In Extinction Rates, ed. Lawton, J. H. and May, R. M.. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, pp. 147–63.Google Scholar
León, B. (1990). New localities for Acrostichum danaeifolium in Peru. American Fern Journal, 80, 113–14.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lesica, P. and Allendorf, F. W. (1995). When are peripheral populations valuable for conservation?Conservation Biology, 9, 753–60.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lloyd, R. M. and Klekowski, E. J. (1970). Spore germination and viability in Pteridophyta: evolutionary significance of chlorophyllous spores. Biotropica, 2, 129–37.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Loriot, S., Magnanon, S. and Deslandes, E. (2006). Trichomanes speciosum (Hymenophyllaceae: Pteridophyta) in northwestern France. Fern Gazette, 17, 333–49.Google Scholar
Lusby, P., Lindsay, S. and Dyer, A. F. (2002). Principles, practice and problems of conserving the rare British fern Woodsia ilvensis (L.) R. Br. Fern Gazette, 16, 350–5.Google Scholar
May, R. M., Lawton, J. H. and Stork, N. E. (1995). Assessing extinction rates. In Extinction Rates, ed. Lawton, J. H. and May, R. M.. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, pp. 1–24.Google Scholar
Mehltreter, K. (1995). Species richness and geographical distribution of montane pteridophytes of Costa Rica, Central America. Feddes Repertorium, 106, 563–84.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mehltreter, K. (2008a). Helechos. In Agroecosistemas Cafetaleros de Veracruz: Biodiversidad, Manejo y Conservación, ed. Manson, R. H., Hernández-Ortiz, V., Gallina, S. and Mehltreter, K.. Mexico City: Instituto de Ecología, A. C. (INECOL) e Instituto Nacional de Ecología (INE), pp. 83–93.Google Scholar
Mehltreter, K. (2008b). Phenology and habitat specificity in tropical ferns. In Biology and Evolution of Ferns and Lycophytes, ed. Ranker, T. A. and Haufler, C. H.. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, pp. 201–21.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mehltreter, K. and García-Franco, J. G. (2008). Leaf phenology and trunk growth of the deciduous tree fern Alsophila firma (Baker) D.S. Conant in a lower montane Mexican forest. American Fern Journal, 98, 1–13.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mehltreter, K., Flores-Palacios, A. and García-Franco, J. G. (2005). Host preferences of vascular trunk epiphytes in a cloud forest of Veracruz, México. Journal of Tropical Ecology, 21, 651–60.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mickel, J. T. and Smith, A. R. (2004). The Pteridophytes of Mexico. New York: The New York Botanical Garden.Google Scholar
Mittermeier, R. A., Gil, P. R., Hoffmann, M., et al. (2005). Hotspots Revisited: Earth's Biologically Richest and Most Endangered Terrestrial Ecoregions. Mexico: CEMEX.Google Scholar
Moran, R. C. and Riba, R. (eds.) (1995). Psilotaceae a Salviniaceae, Vol. 1. of Flora Mesoamericana, ed. Davidse, G., Souza, M. S. and Knapp, S.. Ciudad Universitaria, Mexico: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México.Google Scholar
Myers, N. (1988). Threatened biotas: ‘hotspots’ in tropical forests. The Environmentalist, 8, 1–20.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Myers, N., Mittermeier, R. A., Mittermeier, C. G., da Fonseca, G. A. B. and Kent, J. (2000). Biodiversity hotspots for conservation priorities. Nature, 403, 853–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Olsen, S. (2007). Encyclopedia of Garden Ferns. Portland, OR, USA: Timber Press.Google Scholar
Ough, K. (2001). Regeneration of wet forest flora a decade after clear-felling or wildfire – is there a difference?Australian Journal of Botany, 49, 645–64.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ough, K. and Murphy, A. (2004). Decline in tree-fern abundance after clearfell harvesting. Forest Ecology and Management, 199, 153–63.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Paciencia, M. L. B. and Prado, J. (2005). Effects of forest fragmentation on pteridophyte diversity in a tropical rain forest in Brazil. Plant Ecology, 180, 87–104.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pence, V. C. (2002). Cryopreservation and in vitro methods for ex situ conservation of pteridophytes. Fern Gazette, 16, 362–8.Google Scholar
Pence, V. C. (2008). Ex situ conservation of ferns and lycophytes: approaches and techniques. In Biology and Evolution of Ferns and Lycophytes, ed. Ranker, T. A. and Haufler, C. H.. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, pp. 284–300.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pimm, S. L. (1991). The Balance of Nature? Ecological Issues in the Conservation of Species and Communities. Chicago, IL, USA: The University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Pimm, S. L. and Raven, P. (2000). Extinction by numbers. Nature, 403, 843–5.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Prance, G. T. (2001). Discovering the plant world. Taxon, 50, 345–59.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Quintanilla, L. G., Amigo, J., Pangua, E. and Pajarón, S. (2002). Effect of storage method on spore viability in five globally threatened fern species. Annals of Botany, 90, 461–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rabinowitz, D. (1981). Seven forms of rarity. In The Biological Aspects of Rare Plant Conservation, ed. Synge, H.. New York: John Wiley, pp. 205–17.Google Scholar
Rae, D. (1999). Conservation of natural populations. In A Color Atlas of Plant Propagation and Conservation, ed. Bowes, B. G.. New York: The New York Botanical Garden Press, pp. 177–86.Google Scholar
Ranal, M. A. (2003). Soil spore bank of ferns in a gallery forest of the ecological station of Panga, Uberlândia, MG, Brazil. American Fern Journal, 93, 97–115.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ranker, T. A., Trapp, P. G., Smith, A. R., Moran, R. C. and Parris, B. S. (2005). New records of lycophytes and ferns from Moorea, French Polynesia. American Fern Journal, 95, 126–7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rapoport, E. H. (1982). Aerography: Geographical Strategies of Species. Oxford, UK: Pergamon Press.Google Scholar
Ratcliffe, D. A., Birks, J. B. and Birks, H. H. (1993). The ecology and conservation of the Killarney fern Trichomanes speciosum Willd. in Britain and Ireland. Biological Conservation, 66, 231–47.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Raup, D. M. (1986). Biological extinction in Earth history. Science, 231, 1528–33.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Roos, M. (1996). Mapping the world's pteridophyte diversity: systematics and floras. In Pteridology in Perspective, ed. Camus, J. M., Gibby, M. and Johns, R. J.. Kew, UK: Royal Botanic Gardens, pp. 29–42.Google Scholar
Rosenzweig, M. L. (1995). Species Diversity in Space and Time. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rothwell, G. W. and Stockey, R. A. (2008). Phylogeny and evolution of ferns: a paleontological perspective. In Biology and Evolution of Ferns and Lycophytes, ed. Ranker, T. A. and Haufler, C. H.. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, pp. 332–66.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rumsey, F. J., Russell, S. J., Ji, J., Barrett, J. A. and Gibby, M. (1996). Genetic variation in the endangered filmy fern Trichomanes speciosum. In Pteridology in Perspective, ed. Camus, J. M., Gibby, M. and Johns, R. J.. Kew, UK: Royal Botanic Gardens, pp. 161–5.Google Scholar
Rumsey, F. J., Jermy, A. C. and Sheffield, E. (1998). The independent gametophyte stage of Trichomanes speciosum Willd. (Hymenophyllaceae) the Killarney fern and its distribution on the British Isles. Watsonia, 22, 1–19.Google Scholar
Rumsey, F. J., Vogel, J. C., Russell, S. J., Barrett, J. A. and Gibby, M. (1999). Population structure and conservation biology of the endangered fern Trichomanes speciosum Willd. (Hymenophyllaceae) at its northern distributional limit. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 66, 333–44.Google Scholar
Russell, A. E., Raich, J. W. and Vitousek, P. M. (1998). The ecology of the climbing fern Dicranopteris linearis on windward Mauna Loa, Hawaii. Journal of Ecology, 86, 765–79.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sanford, W. W. (1968). Distribution of epiphytic orchids in semideciduous tropical forest in southern Nigeria. Journal of Ecology, 56, 697–705.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sato, T. (1990). Estimation of chronological age for sporophyte maturation in three semi-evergreen ferns in Hokkaido. Ecological Research, 5, 55–62.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schelpe, E. A. C. L. E. and Anthony, N. C. (1986). Pteridophyta. In Flora of Southern Africa, ed. Leistner, O. A.. Pretoria, Republic of South Africa: Botanical Research Institute.Google Scholar
Schneider, H., Schuettpelz, E., Pryer, K. M., Cranfill, R., , Magallón, S. and Lupia, R. (2004). Ferns diversified in the shadow of angiosperms. Nature, 428, 553–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schneller, J. J. (2008). Antheridiogens. In Biology and Evolution of Ferns and Lycophytes, ed. Ranker, T. A. and Haufler, C. H.. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, pp. 134–58.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schneller, J. J. and Holderegger, R. (1996). Genetic variation in small, isolated fern populations. Journal of Vegetation Science, 7, 113–20.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sepkoski, J. J., Jr. (1992). Phylogenetic and ecologic patterns in the Phanerozoic history of marine biodiversity. In Systematics, Ecology and the Biodiversity Crisis, ed. Eldridge, N.. New York: Columbia University Press, pp. 77–100.Google Scholar
Sharpe, J. and Jernstedt, J. A. (1991). Stipular bud development in Danaea wendlandii (Marattiaceae). American Fern Journal, 81, 119–27.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Slocum, M. G., Aide, T. M., Zimmerman, J. K. and Navarro, L. (2004). Natural regeneration of subtropical montane forest after clearing fern thickets in the Dominican Republic. Journal of Tropical Ecology, 20, 483–6.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smith, A. R., Kessler, M. and Gonzales, J. (1999). New records of pteridophytes from Bolivia. American Fern Journal, 89, 244–66.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smith, A. R., Pryer, K. M., Schuettpelz, E., et al. (2006). A classification for extant ferns. Taxon, 55, 705–31.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Soltis, D. E. and Soltis, P. S. (1986). Electrophoretic evidence for inbreeding in the fern Botrychium virginianum (Ophioglossaceae). American Journal of Botany, 73, 248–56.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Soltis, D. E. and Soltis, P. S. (1989). Polyploidy, breeding systems, and genetic differentiation in homosporous pteridophytes. In Isozymes in Plant Biology, ed. Soltis, D. E. and Soltis, P. S.. Portland, OR, USA: Dioscorides Press, pp. 241–58.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stace, C. (1997). New Flora of the British Isles. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Stevens, G. C. (1989). The latitudinal gradient in geographical range: how so many species coexist in the tropics. American Naturalist, 133, 240–56.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sukopp, H. and Trautmann, W. (1981). Causes of the decline of threatened plants in the Federal Republic of Germany. In The Biological Aspects of Rare Plant Conservation, ed. Synge, H.. New York: John Wiley, pp. 113–16.Google Scholar
Sutherland, T., Blackmore, P., Ndam, N. and Nkefor, J. (2002). Conservation through cultivation: the work of the Limbe Botanic Garden, Cameroon. In Plant Conservation in the Tropics: Perspectives and Practice, ed. Maunder, M., Clubbe, C., Hankamer, C. and Groves, M.. Kew, UK: Royal Botanic Gardens, pp. 395–419.Google Scholar
Tryon, R. M. (1970). Development and evolution of fern floras of oceanic islands. Biotropica, 2, 76–84.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tryon, R. M. (1989). Pteridophytes. In Tropical Rain Forest Ecosystems: Biogeographical and Ecological Studies. Vol. 14B of Ecosystems of the World, ed. Lieth, H. and Werger, M. J. A.. Amsterdam, The Netherlands: Elsevier, pp. 327–38.Google Scholar
Tuomisto, H. and Poulsen, A. D. (1996). Influence of edaphic specialization on pteridophyte distribution in neotropical rain forests. Journal of Biogeography, 23, 283–93.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Unwin, G. L. and Hunt, M. A. (1996). Conservation and management of soft tree fern Dicksonia antarctica in relation to commercial forestry and horticulture. In Pteridology in Perspective, ed. Camus, J. M., Gibby, M. and Johns, R. J.. Kew, UK: Royal Botanic Gardens, pp. 125–37.Google Scholar
Valentine, J. W., Yiffney, B. H. and Sepkowski, J. J., Jr. (1991). Evolutionary dynamics of plants and animals: a comparative approach. Palaios, 6, 81–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vega, E., Caudales, R. and Sánchez-Pérez, A. (1997). New records of pteridophytes for Botswana. American Fern Journal, 87, 127–30.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vöge, M. (2004). Non-destructive assessing and monitoring of populations of Isoëtes lacustris L. Limnologica, 34, 147–53.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vogel, J. C., Jessen, S., Gibby, M., Jermy, A. C. and Ellis, L. (1993). Gametophytes of Trichomanes speciosum (Hymenophyllaceae: Pteridophyta) in Central Europe. Fern Gazette, 14, 227–32.Google Scholar
Wagner, W. H., Jr. and Smith, A. R. (1993). Pteridophytes of North America. In Introduction, Vol. 1 of Flora of North America North of Mexico, ed. Flora of North America Editorial Committee. New York and Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, pp. 247–66.Google ScholarPubMed
Walker, L. R. (1994). Effects of fern thickets on woodland development on landslides in Puerto Rico. Journal of Vegetation Science, 5, 525–32.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Walker, L. R. and Boneta, W. (1995). Plant and soil responses to fire on a fern-covered landslide in Puerto Rico. Journal of Tropical Ecology, 11, 473–9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Whittaker, R. J. (1998). Island Biogeography: Ecology, Evolution and Conservation. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Windham, M. D. (1987). Argyrochosma, a new genus of cheilanthoid ferns. American Fern Journal, 77, 37–41.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Woodmansee, S. W. and Sadle, J. L. (2005). New occurrences of Schizaea pennula Sw. in Florida. American Fern Journal, 95, 84–7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zenkteler, E. K. (2002). Ex situ breeding and reintroduction of Osmunda regalis L. in Poland. Fern Gazette, 16, 371–6.Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure coreplatform@cambridge.org is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×