In 2 Henry VI, one of Shakespeare's earliest plays, the tradesman revolutionary Jack Cade commands, “Set London Bridge afire” and “burn down the Tower too.” (The king and queen are barricaded there.) When a rebel reports, “London Bridge is afire!” Cade issues an electrifying decree: “Henceforward all things shall be in common.” He will abolish social distinction – “it was never merry world in England since gentlemen came up” (4.2.6–7), demoting “kings and princes” (4.2.33). That early modern specter, armed revolt promoting economic communism and social equality, was a nightmare or a beatific vision, depending on whether one wore starched ruff or leather jerkin. And many violent avengers are levelers.

For two centuries, class wars had kept Europe in flames, swelling to a tsunami of violence in the 1520s and 1530s. In Part II, on resistance, I focused on the lone avenger (sometimes with a few confederates). But sometimes a whole oppressed class resisted. Such rebellions were usually crushed.