Bjerregaard, B. & Lizotte, L. (1995). Gun ownership and gang membership. Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, 86, 37–58.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Block, C. R. (1991). Gang homicide in Chicago: Patterns over time, area of city, and type of victim. Presented to Midwestern Criminal Justice Association. Chicago, Illinois.Google Scholar

Block, C. & Block, R. (1993). Street gang crime in Chicago. Research in Brief. Washington, DC: National Institute of Justice.Google Scholar

Blumstein, A. (1995). Youth violence, guns, and the illicit-drug industry. The Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, 86(1), 10–36.Google Scholar

Blumstein, A., Cohen, J., Cork, D., Engberg, J., & Tita, G. (2002). Diffusion processes in homicide. Washington, DC: National Institute of Justice.Google Scholar

Braga, A. A. (2008). Pulling levers focused deterrence strategies and the prevention of gun homicide. Journal of Criminal Justice, 36(4), 332–343.Google Scholar

Braga, A. A., Hureau, D. M., & Papachristos, A. V. (2014). Deterring gang-involved gun violence: measuring the impact of Boston’s operation ceasefire on street gang behavior. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 30(1), 113–139.Google Scholar

Camp, G. M. & Camp, C. G. (1985). Prison gangs: Their extent, nature, and impact on prisons. Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office.Google Scholar

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2011). Web-based injury statistics query and reporting system. Retrieved March 30, 2017 from www.cdc.gov/injury/wisqars/.Google Scholar

Cohen, J., Cork, D., Engberg, J., & Tita, G. (1998). The role of drug markets and gangs in local homicide rates. Journal of Homicide Studies, 2, 241–262.Google Scholar

Cohen, J. & Tita, G. E. (1999). Spatial Diffusion in Homicide: An Exploratory Analysis. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 15, 451–493.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Cook, P. J., Parker, S. T., & Pollack, H. A. (2015). Sources of guns to dangerous people: What we learn by asking them. Preventive Medicine, 79, 28–36.Google Scholar

Coughlin, B. C. & Venkatesh, S. A. (2003). The urban street gang after 1970. Annual Review of Sociology, 29, 41–64.Google Scholar

Covey, H. C. (2003). Street gangs throughout the world. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas.Google Scholar

Curry, G. D., Ball, R. A., & Decker, S. H. (1996). Update on gang crime and law enforcement recordkeeping: Report of the 1994 NIJ extended national assessment survey of law enforcement anti-gang information resources. Washington, DC: US Department of Justice.Google Scholar

Curry, G. D., Decker, S. H., & Egley Jr, A. (2002). Gang involvement and delinquency in a middle school population. Justice Quarterly, 19(2), 275–292.Google Scholar

Curry, G. D., Egley, H., & Howell, J. C. (2004). Youth gang homicide trends in the National Youth Gang Survey. Paper Presented at the American Society of Criminology Meetings. Nashville, TN.Google Scholar

Curry, G. D. & Spergel, I. (1988). Gang homicide, delinquency, and community. Criminology, 26, 381–405.Google Scholar

Decker, S. H. (1996). Collective and normative features of gang violence. Justice Quarterly, 13(2), 243–264.Google Scholar

Decker, S. H. & Curry, G. D. (2002). Gangs, gang homicides and gang loyalty: Organized crimes or disorganized criminals? Journal of Criminal Justice, 30, 343–352.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Decker, S. H., Melde, C., & Pyrooz, D. C. (2013). What do we know about gangs and gang members and where do we go from here? Justice Quarterly, 30, 369–402.Google Scholar

Decker, S. H., Pennell, S. P, & Caldwell, A. (1996). Arrestees and firearms. National Institute of Justice. Washington, DC: National Institute of Justice.Google Scholar

Decker, S. H., & Pyrooz, D. C. (2010). Gang violence worldwide: Context, culture, and country. In Small Arms Survey 2010: Gangs, groups, and guns (pp. 128–155). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Decker, S. H., Pyrooz, D. C., Moule, R. K., & Sweeten, G. (2014). Validating self-nomination in gang research: Assessing differences in gang embeddedness across non, current, and former gang members. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 30(4), 577–598.Google Scholar

Decker, S. H., Van Gemert, F., & Pyrooz, D. C. (2009). Gangs, migration, and crime: The changing landscape in Europe and the USA. Journal of International Migration and Integration, 10(4), 393–408.Google Scholar

Decker, S. H. & Van Winkle, B. (1994). Slingin’ dope: The role of gangs and gang members in drug sales. Justice Quarterly, 11, 583–684.Google Scholar

Decker, S. H. & Van Winkle, B. (1996). Life in the gang; Family, friends and violence. New York. Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Densley, J. (2013). How gangs work: An ethnography of youth violence. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Esbensen, F. A., Winfree, L. T., He, N., & Taylor, T. J. (2001). Youth gangs and definitional issues: When is a gang a gang, and why does it matter? Crime & Delinquency, 47(1), 105–130.Google Scholar

Federal Bureau of Investigation. (1999). FBI gang alert. Washington, DC: Author.Google Scholar

Fleisher, M. S. (1989). Warehousing violence. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.Google Scholar

Fong, R. S., Vogel, R. E., & Buentello, S. (1992). Prison gang dynamics: A look inside the Texas Department of Corrections. In Benekos, P. J. & Merlo, A. V. (Eds), Corrections: Dilemmas and directions (pp. 57–77). Cincinnati, OH: Anderson PublishingGoogle Scholar

Gaes, G. G., Wallace, S., Gilman, E., Klein-Saffran, J., & Suppa, S. (2002). The influence of prison gang affiliation on violence and other prison misconduct. The Prison Journal, 82(3), 359–385.Google Scholar

Gatti, U., Angelini, F., Marengo, G., Melchiorre, N., & Sasso, M. (2005). An old fashioned gang in Genoa. In Decker, S. & Weerman, F. (Eds), European street gangs and troublesome youth groups (pp. 63–102). Walnut Creek, CA: Alta Mira.Google Scholar

Griffin, M. L. & Hepburn, J. R. (2006). The effect of gang affiliation on violent misconduct among inmates during the early years of confinement. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 33(4), 419–466.Google Scholar

Hagedorn, J. M. (1988). People and folks: Gangs, crime and the underclass in a Rust Belt city. Chicago: Lakeview Press.Google Scholar

Hagedorn, J. M. (1994). Homeboys, dope fiends, legits and new jacks. Criminology, 32, 197–217.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Haymoz, S., Maxson, C., & Killias, M. (2014). Street gang participation in Europe: A comparison of correlates. European Journal of Criminology, 11(6), 659–681.Google Scholar

Hixon, A. L. (1999). Preventing street gang violence. American Family Physician, 125, 1–7.Google Scholar

Howell, J. C. (1998). Youth gangs: An overview. Washington, DC: US Department of Justice.Google Scholar

Howell, J. C. & Decker, S. H. (1999). The youth gangs, drugs, and violence connection. Washington, DC: US Department of Justice.Google Scholar

Howell, J. C., Egley, A., Jr., Tita, G. E., & Griffiths, E. (2011). US gang problem trends and seriousness, 1996–2009. Washington, DC: US Department of Justice.Google Scholar

Howell, J. C. & Lynch, J. P. (2000). Youth gangs in schools. Washington, DC: US Department of Justice.Google Scholar

Huebner, B. M., Martin, K., Pyrooz, D. C., Moule, R. K., & Decker, S. H. (2014). Dangerous places: Gang members and neighborhood levels of gun assault. Justice Quarterly, 30,1–27.Google Scholar

Hutson, H. R., Anglin, D., & Eckstein, M. (1996). Drive-by shootings by violent street gangs in Los Angeles: A five-year review from 1989 to 1993. Academic Emergency Medicine, 3, 300–303.Google Scholar

Hutson, H. R., Anglin, D., & Mallon, W. (1992). Injuries and deaths from gang violence: They are preventable. Annals of Emergency Medicine, 21, 1234–1236.Google Scholar

Hutson, H. R., Anglin, D., & Pratts, M. J. (1994). Adolescents and children injured or killed in drive-by shootings in Los Angeles. New England Journal of Medicine, 330(5), 324–327.Google Scholar

Ingraham, B. L. & Wellford, C. F. (1987). The totality of conditions test in eighth-amendment litigation. In Gottfredson, S. D. & McConville, S. (Eds), America’s correctional crisis: Prison populations and public policy (pp. 13–36). New York: Greenwood Press.Google Scholar

Kennedy, D. M., Braga, A. A., & Piehl, A. M. (1998). The (un)known universe: Mapping gangs and gang violence in Boston. In Weisburd, D. & McEwen, J. T. (Eds), Crime mapping and crime prevention (pp. 219–262). New York: Criminal Justice Press.Google Scholar

Kirk, D. S. & Papachristos, A. V. (2011). Cultural mechanisms and the persistence of neighborhood violence. American Journal of Sociology, 116(4), 1190–1233.Google Scholar

Klein, M. W., Weerman, F. M., & Thornberry, T. P. (2006). Street gang violence in Europe. European Journal of Criminology, 3(4), 413–437.Google Scholar

Klein, M. W., Kerner, H.-J., Maxson, C. L., & Weitekamp, E. G. M. (2001). The eurogang paradox: Street gangs and youth groups in the U.S. and Europe. Dordrecht: Kluwer.Google Scholar

Klein, M. W. & Maxson, C. L. (1989). Street gang violence. In Weiner, N. A. & Wolfgang, M.E. (Eds), Violent crime, violent criminals (pp. 198–234). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.Google Scholar

Klein, M. W. & Maxson, C. L. (1994). Gangs and Cocaine Trafficking. In MacKenzie, D. and Uchida, C. (Eds), Drugs and the Criminal Justice System. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications.Google Scholar

Klein, M. W., Maxson, C. L., & Cunningham, L. C. (1988). Gang involvement in cocaine rock trafficking. Unpublished report. Los Angeles, CA: Social Science Research Institute, University of Southern California.Google Scholar

Klein, M. W., Maxson, C. L., & Cunningham, L. C. (1991). Crack, street gangs, and violence. Criminology, 29(4), 623–650.Google Scholar

Knox, G. W. & Tromanhauser, E. D. (1991). Gangs and their control in adult correctional institutions. Prison Journal, 71, 15–22.Google Scholar

Krienert, J. L., & Fleisher, M. S. (2001). Gang membership as a proxy for social deficiencies: A study of Nebraska inmates. Corrections Management Quarterly, 5, 47–58.Google Scholar

Lauger, T. R. (2012). Real gangstas: legitimacy, reputation, and violence in the intergang environment. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.Google Scholar

Lien, I.-L. (2005a). Criminal gangs and their connections: Metaphors, definitions and structures. In Decker, S. & Weerman, F. (Eds), European street gangs and troublesome youth groups (pp. 35–62). Walnut Creek, CA: Alta Mira.Google Scholar

Lien, I.-L. (2005b). The role of crime acts in constituting the gang’s mentality. In Decker, S. & Weerman, F. (Eds), European street gangs and troublesome youth groups (pp. 137–164). Walnut Creek, CA: Alta Mira.Google Scholar

Lizotte, A., Tesoriero, J. M., Thornberry, T. P., & Krohn, M. D. (1994). Patterns of adolescent firearms ownership and use. Justice Quarterly, 11, 51–73.Google Scholar

Loftin, C. (1984). Assaultive violence as contagious process. Bulletin of the New York Academy of Medicine, 62, 550–555.Google Scholar

Maxson, C. L. (1998). Gang homicide: A review and extentsion of the literature. In Smith, M. D. and Zahn (Eds), M. A., Homicide Studies: A sourcebook of social research (pp. 197–220). Newbury Park, CA : SageGoogle Scholar

Maxson, C. L. (1999). Gang homicide: A review and extension of the literature. In Smith, D. & Zahn, M. A. (Eds), Homicide: A sourcebook of social research (pp. 239–236). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.Google Scholar

Maxson, C. L. (2002). Play groups no longer: Urban street gangs in the Los Angeles region. In Dear, M. J. (Ed.), From Chicago to L.A.: Making sense of theory (pp. 235–266). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Google Scholar

Maxson, C. L. & Klein, M. W. (1990). Street Gang Violence: Twice as Great, or Half as Great. In Huff, C. R. (Ed.), Gangs in America (p. 71–100). Newbury Park, CA.Google Scholar

Maxson, C. L. & Klein, M. W. (1996). Defining gang homicide: An updated look at member and motive approaches. In Huff, C. R. (Ed.), Gangs in America (2nd ed.). Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications.Google Scholar

Maxson, C. L., Gordon, M. A., & Klein, M. W. (1985). Differences between Gang an Nongang Homicides. Criminology, 23, 209–222.Google Scholar

Maxson, C. L., Whitlock, M. L., & Klein, M. W. (1998). Vulnerability to street gang membership: Implications for practice. Social Service Review, 72(1), 70–91.Google Scholar

Miller, W. B. (1982). Crime by youth gangs and groups in the United States. Washington, DC: Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention. US Department of Justice.Google Scholar

Miller, T. R. & Cohen, M. A. (1997). Costs of gunshot and cut/stab wounds in the United States, with some Canadian comparisons. Accident Analysis & Prevention, 29(3), 329–341.Google Scholar

Mitchell, M. M., Fahmy, C., Pyrooz, D. C., & Decker, S. H. (2016). Criminal Crews, Codes, and Contexts: Differences and Similarities across the Code of the Street, Convict Code, Street Gangs, and Prison Gangs. Deviant Behavior, 38(10), 1197–1222.Google Scholar

Morenoff, J. D., Sampson, R. J., & Raudenbush, S. W. (2001). Neighborhood inequality, collective efficacy, and the spatial dynamics of urban violence. Criminology, 39(3), 517–558.Google Scholar

Moule, R. K., Jr., Pyrooz, D. C., & Decker, S. H. 2013. From ‘What the f#@% is a Facebook?’ to ‘Who doesn’t use Facebook?’ The role of criminal lifestyles in the adoption and use of the Internet. Social Science Research, 42: 1411–1421.Google Scholar

Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention. (1996). Victims of gang violence: A new frontier in victim services. Washington, DC: Author.Google Scholar

Papachristos, A. V. (2009). Murder by Structure: Dominance Relations and the Social Structure of Gang Homicide. American Journal of Sociology, 115(1), 74–128.Google Scholar

Papachristos, A. V., Hureau, D. M., & Braga, A. (2013). The corner and the crew: The Influence of geography and social networks on gang violence. American Sociological Review, 78(3) 417–447.Google Scholar

Parent, D., Leiter, V., Livens, L., Wentworth, D., & Stephen, K. (1994). Conditions of confinement: Juvenile detention and corrections facilities. Washington, DC: US Department of Justice.Google Scholar

Patton, D. U., Eschmann, R. D., & Butler, D. A. (2013). Internet banging: New trends in social media, gang violence, masculinity and hip hop. Computers in Human Behavior 29: A54–A59.Google Scholar

Pizzaro, J. M. & McGloin, J. M. (2004). Explaining gang homicides in Newark: Collective behavior or social disorganization? Paper presented at the 2004 Meeting of the American Society of Criminology, Nashville, TN.Google Scholar

Pynoos, R. S. & Nader, K. (1988). Psychological first aid and treatment approach to children exposed to community violence: Research implications. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 1, 445–473.Google Scholar

Pyrooz, D., Decker, S., & Fleisher, M. (2011). From the street to the prison, from the prison to the street: Understanding and responding to prison gangs. Journal of Aggression, Conflict and Peace Research, 3(1), 12–24.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Pyrooz, D. C., Decker, S. H., & Moule, R. K. (2014). The Contribution of Gang Membership to the Victim-Offender Overlap. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 51(3), 315–348.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Pyrooz, D. C., Fox, A. M., Katz, C. M., & Decker, S. H. (2012). Gang organization, offending, and victimization: A cross-national analysis. In Esbensen, F. A., & Maxson, C. L. (Eds), Youth gangs in international perspective: Results from the Eurogang program of research (pp. 85–105). New York: Springer.Google Scholar

Pyrooz, D. C., Moule, R. K., & Decker, S. H. (2015). Criminal and routine activities in online settings: Gangs, offenders, and the Internet. Justice Quarterly, 32(3), 471–499.Google Scholar

Ralph, P. H. & Marquart, J. W. (1991). Gang violence in Texas prisons. Prison Journal, 71, 38–49.Google Scholar

Rosenfeld, R. B., Bray, T., & Egley, H. (1999). Facilitating violence: A comparison of gang-motivated, gang-affiliated, and non-gang youth homicides. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 15, 495–516.Google Scholar

Ruddell, R., Decker, S. H., & Egley, A. (2006). Gang Interventions in Jails a National Analysis. Criminal Justice Review, 31(1), 33–46.Google Scholar

Safin, R. R., Salagaev, A. L., & Makarov, A. S. (2010). Violent youth groups in the Tatarstan Republic of Russia. Grupės ir aplinkos, (2), 175–182.Google Scholar

Sanchez-Jankowski, M. (1991). Islands in the Street. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.Google Scholar

Sanders, W. B. (1994). Gangbangs and drive-bys: Grounded culture and juvenile gang violence. New York: Aldine.Google Scholar

Shashkin, A. (2008). Origins and development of racist skinheads in Moscow. In Van Gemert, F., Peterson, D., & Lien, I.-L. (Eds), Street gangs, migration and ethnicity (p. 97–114). Cullompton: Willan Publishing.Google Scholar

Shashkin, A. & Salagaev, A. (2005). Violence and victimisation on the street: Power struggle and masculine hierarchies in Russia. In Hoikkala, T. & Suurpaa, L. (Eds), Masculinities and Violence in Youth Microcultures (pp. 11–45). Helsinki: Finnish Youth Research Network.Google Scholar

Shashkin, A., Salagaev, A., Sherbakova, I., & Touryanskiy, E. (2005). Contemporary Russian gangs: History, membership and crime involvement. In. Decker, S. & Weerman, F. (Eds), European street gangs and troublesome youth groups (pp. 209–240). Walnut Creek, CA: Alta Mira.Google Scholar

Sheley, J. F. & Wright, J. D. (1995). In the line of fire: Youth, guns and violence in urban America. New York: Aldine de Gruyter.Google Scholar

Short, J. F., Jr. (1985). The level of explanation problem in criminology. In Meier, R. F. (Ed.), Theoretical models in criminology (pp. 51–72). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.Google Scholar

Short, J. F., Jr. (1989). Exploring integration of theoretical levels of explanation: Notes on gang delinquency. In Liska, A. E., Krohn, M., & Messner, S. F. (Eds), Theoretical integration in the study of deviance and crime (pp. 243–259). Albany, NY: SUNY Press.Google Scholar

Skarbek, D. (2011). Governance and prison gangs. American Political Science Review, 105(4), 702–716.Google Scholar

Skolnick, J. (1990). The social structure of street drug dealing. American Journal of Police, 9, 1–41.Google Scholar

Song, D. H., Naude, G. P., Gilmore, D. A., & Bongard, F. (1996). Gang warfare: The medical repercussions. Journal of Trauma, Injury, Infection and Critical Care, 40(5), 810–815.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Thornberry, T. P. & Burch, J. H. II. (1997). Gang members and delinquent behavior. Washington, DC: US Department of Justice.Google Scholar

Thornberry, T., Krohn, M. D., Lizotte, A. J., Smith, C. A., & Tobin, K. (2002). Gangs in developmental perspective: The origins and consequences of gang membership. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Thrasher, F. (1927). The gang. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar

Tita, G. & Abrahamse, A. (2004). Gang homicide in LA, 1981–2001 Perspectives on violence prevention. Sacramento, CA: California Attorney General’s Office.Google Scholar

Tita, G., Riley, J., & Greenwood, P. (2002). From Boston to Boyle Heights: The process and prospects of a “pulling levers” strategy in a Los Angeles barrio. In Decker, S. (Ed.), Policing gangs and youth violence (pp. 102–130). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.Google Scholar

Van Gemert, F. & Fleisher, M. (2005). In the grip of the group: Ethnography of a Moroccan street gang in the Netherlands. In Decker, S. & Weerman, F. (Eds), European street gangs and troublesome youth groups (pp. 11–34). Walnut Creek, CA: Alta Mira.Google Scholar

Vigil, J. D. (1988). Barrio gangs: Street life and identity in Southern California. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press.Google Scholar

Vigil, J. D. (2003). Urban violence and street gangs. Annual Review of Anthropology, 32, 225–242.Google Scholar

Vigil, J. D. (2004). The gang subculture and locura: Variations in acts and actors. In Martinez, R., Jr. (Ed.), Beyond racial dichotomies of violence: Immigrants, ethnicity, and race. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar

Watkins, A. M., Huebner, B. M., & Decker, S. H. (2008). Patterns of Gun acquisition, carrying, and use among juvenile and adult arrestees: Evidence from a high-crime city. Justice Quarterly, 25(4), 674–700.Google Scholar

Weerman, F. M., Lovegrove, P. J., & Thornberry, T. (2015). Gang membership transitions and its consequences: Exploring changes related to joining and leaving gangs in two countries. European Journal of Criminology, 12 (1), 70–91.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Weitekamp, E., Reich, K., & Kerner, H.-J. (2005). Why do young male Russians of German descent (Aussiedlers) tend to join or form gangs where violence plays a major role? In Decker, S. & Weerman, F. (Eds), European street gangs and troublesome youth groups (pp. 103–136). Walnut Creek, CA: Alta Mira.Google Scholar

Wilson, W. J. (1987). The truly disadvantage: The inner city, the underclass and public policy. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar

Wilson, J., Hiromoto, S., Fain, T., Tita, G., & Riley, R. (2004). Homicide in San Diego: A Case Study Analysis. Santa Monica, CA: RAND.Google Scholar

Wilson, J. & Riley, K. (2004). Violence in East and West Oakland: Description and Intervention. Rand Public Safety and Justice Working Paper. Santa Monica, CA: RAND.Google Scholar

Vandenbogaerde, E. & Van Hellemont, E. (2016). Fear and retaliation: Gang violence in Brussels and Caracas. In Maxson, C. L., & Esbensen, F. A. (Eds), Gang transitions and transformations in the international context (pp. 51–63). Switzerland: Springer.Google Scholar

Van Gemert, F. & Decker, S. H. (2008) Migrant groups and gang activity: A contrast between Europe and the USA. In Van Gemert, F., Peterson, D., & Lien, I.-L. (Eds), Street gangs migration and ethnicity (p. 15–30). Cullompton: Willan Publishing.Google Scholar

Van Gemert, F., Roks, R., & Drogt, M. (2016). Dutch Crips run dry in liquid society. In Maxson, C. L., & Esbensen, F. A. (Eds), Gang transitions and transformations in the international context (pp. 157–172). Switzerland: Springer.Google Scholar

Vargas, R. (2016). Wounded City: Violent Turf Wars in a Chicago Barrio. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar

Vigil, J. D. (2007). The projects: Gang and non-gang families in East Los Angeles. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press.Google Scholar

Zeoli, A. M., Pizarro, J. M., Grady, S. C., & Melde, C. (2014). Homicide as infectious disease: Using public health methods to investigate the diffusion of homicide. Justice Quarterly, 31(3), 609–632.Google Scholar

Barman-Adhikari, A., Rice, E., Winetrobe, H., & Petering, R. (2015). Social network correlates of methamphetamine, heroin, and cocaine use in a sociometric network of homeless youth. Journal of the Society of Social Work and Research, 6(3), 433–457.Google Scholar

Berkman, L. F. & Glass, T. (2000). Social integration, social networks, social support, and health. Social Epidemiology, 1, 137–173.Google Scholar

Bernard, H. D., Johnsen, E. C., Killworth, P. D., McCarty, C. & Shelley, G. A., & Robinson, S. (1990). Comparing four different methods for measuring personal social networks. Social Networks, 12, 179–215.Google Scholar

Bolden, C. L. (2014). Friendly foes: Hybrid gangs or social networking. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 17(6), 730–749.Google Scholar

Bojanowski, M. & Corten, R. (2014). Measuring segregation in social networks. Social Networks, 39, 14–32.Google Scholar

Borgatti, S. P., Jones, C., & Everett, M. G. (1998). Network measures of social capital. Connections, 21(2), 27–36.Google Scholar

Borgatti, S. P., Mehra, A., Brass, D., & Labianca, G. (2009). Network analysis in the social sciences. Science, 323, 892–895.Google Scholar

Burk, W. J., Vorst, H. V. D., Kerr, M., & Stattin, H. (2012). Alcohol use and friendship dynamics: selection and socialization in early-, middle-, and late-adolescent peer networks. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 73, 89–98.Google Scholar

Burt, R. (1997). A note on social capital and network content. Social Networks 19, 355–373.Google Scholar

Cacioppo, J. T., Cacioppo, S., Capitanio, J. P., & Cole, S. W. (2015). The neuroendocrinology of social isolation. Annual Review of Psychology, 66, 733–767.Google Scholar

Campbell, K. E. (1991). Name generators in surveys of personal networks. Social Networks, 13, 203–221.Google Scholar

Carrington, J. S., Scott, J., & Wasserman, S. (Eds) (2005). Models and Methods in Social Network Analysis. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Christakis, N. A. & Fowler, J. H. (2007). The spread of obesity in a large social network over 32 years. New England Journal of Medicine, 357, 370–379.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Clifton, A., Pilkonis, P. A., & McCarty, C. (2007). Social networks in borderline personality disorder. Journal of Personality Disorders, 21(4), 434–441.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Curry, D. G. (2015). The logic of defining gangs revisited. In Decker, S. H. & Pyrooz, D. C. (Eds), The Handbook of Gangs (pp. 7–27). Malden, MA: Wiley & Sons.Google Scholar

Erickson, B. H. (1997). Social networks and history: a review essay. Historical Methods, 30(3), 149–157.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Espelage, D., Wasserman, S., & Fleisher, M. S. (2007). Social networks and violent behavior. In Flannery, D. J., Vazsonyi, A., & Waldman, I. (Eds), Cambridge Handbook of Violent Behavior (pp. 450–464). New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Everett, M. G. (1990). A testing example for positional analysis techniques. Social Networks, 12, 253–260.Google Scholar

Everett, M. G. & Borgatti, S. P. (1999). The centrality of groups and classes. The Journal of Mathematical Sociology, 23(3), 181–201.Google Scholar

Everett, M. G. & Borgatti, S. P. (2005). Ego network betweenness. Social Networks, 27(1), 31–38.Google Scholar

Ferligoj, A. & Hlebec, V. (1999). Evaluation of social network measurement instruments. Social Networks, 21, 111–130.Google Scholar

Feld, S. L. (1997). Structural embeddedness and stability of interpersonal relations. Social Networks, 19, 91–95.Google Scholar

Fleisher, M. S. (2002). Women and Gangs: A Field Research Study. Washington, DC: Department of Justice, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention. Retrieved April 24, 2017 from www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/198317.pdf.Google Scholar

Fleisher, M. S. (2005). The application of social network analysis to field research: Different methods creating complementary perspectives. Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, 21(5), 120–134.Google Scholar

Fleisher, M. S. (2006). Degree centrality and youth gangs as an ecological adaptation. In Short, J. & Hughes, L. (Eds), Studying Youth Gangs (pp. 85–98). Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press.Google Scholar

Fleisher, M. S. (2015a). Living Black: Social Life in an African American Neighborhood. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.Google Scholar

Fleisher, M. S. (2015b). Gang and drugs: connections, divergence, and culture. In Decker, S. H. & Pyrooz, D.C. (Eds), The handbook of gangs (pp. 193–207). Malden, MA: Wiley & Sons.Google Scholar

Fleisher, M. S. & Krienert, J. L. (2004). Life-course events, social networks, and the emergence of violence among female gang members. Journal of Community Psychology, 32(5), 607–622.Google Scholar

Fleisher, M. S. & McCarty, C., (2004). Structural Holes: Macher or Nebbish: the structural position of important people. International Sunbelt Social Network Conference, Slovenia, May 2004.Google Scholar

Fleisher, M. S. & Papachristos, A. V. (2010). Social Network Analysis and Ethnography: Complementary Tools to Understand the Complexities of Real-life Behavior. International Network of Social Network Analysts Conference, Riva del Garda, Italy, July.Google Scholar

Freeman, L. C. (1978). Centrality in social networks conceptual clarification. Social Networks, 1(3), 215–239.Google Scholar

Freeman, L. C. (2008). Going the wrong way on a one-way street: centrality in physics and biology. Journal of Social Structure, 9(2), 1–15.Google Scholar

Granovetter, M. S. (1973). The strength of weak ties. American Journal of Sociology, 78(6), 1360–1380.Google Scholar

Granovetter, M. S. (1978). Threshold models of collective behavior. The American Journal of Sociology, 83(6), 1420–1443Google Scholar

Gross, N. (2009). A pragmatist theory of social mechanisms. American Sociological Review, 74, 358–379.Google Scholar

Hedstrom, P. & Swedberg, R. (1998). Social Mechanisms: An Approach to Social Theory. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Hlebec, V. & Ferligoj, A. (2001). Respondent mood and the instability of survey network measurements. Social Networks, 23(2), 125–140.Google Scholar

Hu, Y. & Goldman, N. (1990). Mortality differentials by marital status: an international comparison. Demography, 27(2), 233–250.Google Scholar

Huang, G. & Tausig, M. (1990). Network range in personal networks. Social Networks, 12, 261–268.Google Scholar

Killworth, P. D., Johnsen, E. C., & Bernard, H. R., Shelley, G. A., & McCarty, C. (1990). Estimating the size of personal networks. Social Networks, 12, 289–312.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Klerks, P. (2001). The network paradigm applied to criminal organisations [sic]: Theoretical nitpicking or a relevant doctrine for investigators? Recent developments in the Netherlands. Connections, 24(3), 53–65.Google Scholar

Klein, M. W. (1997). The American Street Gang: Its Nature, Prevalence, and Control. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar

Kogovsek, T. & Ferligoj, A. (2005). Effects of reliability on validity of ego-centered network measurements. Social Networks, 27, 205–229.Google Scholar

Krackhardt, D. (1999). The ties that torture: Simmelian tie analysis in organizations. Research in the Sociology of Organizations, 16, 183–210.Google Scholar

Krackhardt, D. & Kilduff, M. (2002). Structure, culture and Simmelian ties in entrepreneurial firms. Social Networks, 24, 279–290.Google Scholar

Kriegel, L. S., Hsu, H. T., & Wenzel, S. L. (2015). Personal networks: A hypothesized mediator in the association between incarceration and HIV risk behaviors among women with histories of homelessness. Journal of the Society for Social Work and Research, 6(3), 407–432.Google Scholar

Lanzetta v. New Jersey, 306 U.S. 451 (1939).Google Scholar

Lazega, E. & van Duijn, M. (1997). Position in formal structure, personal characteristics and choices of advisors in a law firm: a logistic regression model for dyadic network data. Social Networks, 19, 375–397.Google Scholar

Lofors, J. & Sundquist, K. (2007). Low-linking social capital as a predictor of mental disorders: a cohort study of 4.5 million Swedes. Social Science & Medicine, 64, 21–34.Google Scholar

Luke, D. A. & Harris, J. K. (2007). Network analysis in public health: history, methods, and applications. Annual Review of Public Health, 28, 69–93.Google Scholar

Lusher, D., Robins, G., & Kremer, P. (2010). The application of social network analysis to team sports. Measurement in physical education and exercise science, 14(4), 211–224.Google Scholar

Marsden, P. V. (1990). Network data and measurement. Annual Review of Sociology, 16, 435–463.Google Scholar

McCarty, C. (2002). Measuring Structure in Personal Networks. Journal of Social Structure, 3(1), 20.Google Scholar

McCarty, C., Bernard, H. R., Killworth, P. D., Shelley, G. A., & Johnsen, E. C. (1997). Eliciting representative samples of personal networks. Social Networks, 19, 303–323.Google Scholar

McPherson, M., Smith-Lovin, L., & Cook, J. M. (2001). Birds of a feather: homophily in social networks. Annual Review of Sociology, 27, 415–444.Google Scholar

Mische, A. (2008) Partisan Publics: Communication and Contention across Brazilian Youth Activist Networks. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar

Mitchell, J. C. (1974). Social networks. Annual Review of Anthropology, 3, 279–299.Google Scholar

Morgan, D. L., Neal, M. B., & Carder, P. (1997). The stability of core and peripheral networks over time. Social Networks, 19(1), 9–25.Google Scholar

Mutzel, S. (2009). Networks as culturally constituted processes: a comparison of relational sociology and actor-network theory. Current Sociology, 57(6), 871–887.Google Scholar

Papachristos, A. V. (2006). Social network analysis and gang research: theory and methods. In Short, J. & Hughes, L. (Eds), Studying Youth Gangs (pp. 99–116). Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press.Google Scholar

Papachristos, A. V., Wildeman, C., & Roberto, E. (2015). Tragic, but not random: the social contagion of nonfatal gunshot injuries. Social Science & Medicine, 125, 139–150.Google Scholar

Orth-Gomer, L. & Johnson, J. V. (1987). Social network interaction and mortality: a six year follow-up study of a random sample of the Swedish population. Journal of Chronic Diseases, 40(10), 949–957.Google Scholar

Rice, E. & Yoshioka-Maxwell, A. (2015). Social network analysis as a toolkit for the science of social work. Journal of the Society of Social Work and Research, 6(3), 369–383.Google Scholar

Robins, G., Pattison, P., & Woolcock, J. (2004). Missing data in networks: exponential random graph (p*) models for networks with non-respondents. Social Networks, 26, 257–283.Google Scholar

Ruan, D., Freeman, L. C., Dai, X., Pan, Y., & Zhang, W. (1997). On the changing structure of social networks in urban China. Social Networks, 19(1), 75–89.Google Scholar

Short, J. F. & Strodtbeck, F. L. (1965). Group Process and Gang Delinquency. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar

Shye, D., Mullooly, J. P., Freeborn, D. K., & Pope, C. R. (1995). Gender differences in the relationship between social network support and mortality: a longitudinal study of an elderly cohort. Social Science & Medicine, 41(7), 935–947.Google Scholar

Sierra-Arevalo, M., & Papachristos, A. V. (2015). Social network analysis and gangs. In Decker, S. H. and Pyrooz, D. C. (Eds), The Handbook of Gangs (pp. 157–177). Malden, MA: Wiley & Sons.Google Scholar

Skolnick, J. H. (1990). Gang organization and migration: drugs, gangs, and law enforcement. Office of the Attorney General, California Department of Justice.Google Scholar

Smith, K. P. & Christakis, N. A. (2008). Social networks and Heath. Annual Review of Sociology, 34, 405–429.Google Scholar

Sparrow, M. K. (1991). The application of network analysis to criminal intelligence: an assessment of the prospects. Social Networks 13, 251–274.Google Scholar

Suitor, J. & Keeton, S. (1997). Once a friend, always a friend? Effects of homophily on women’s support networks across a decade. Social Networks, 13, 51–62.Google Scholar

Suitor, J. J., Wellman, B., & Morgan, D. L. (1997). It’s about time: how, why, and when networks change. Social Networks, 19, 17.Google Scholar

Tichy, N. M., Tushman, M. L., & Fombrun, C. (1979). Social network analysis for organizations. Academy of Management Review, 4(4), 507–519.Google Scholar

Tolnay, S. E. (2003). The African American “Great Migration” and beyond. Annual Review of Sociology, 29, 209–232.Google Scholar

Tyson, A. & Maniam, S. (2016). Behind Trump’s victory: divisions by race, gender, education. Pew Research Center. Retrieved February 9, 2017 from ww.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2016/11/09/behind-trumps-victory-divisions-by-race-gender-education.Google Scholar

Uzzi, B., (1997). Social structure and competition in interfirm networks: the paradox of embeddedness. Administrative Science Quarterly, 42(1), 35–67.Google Scholar

Valente, T. W. (2003). Social network influences on adolescent substance use: an introduction. Connections, 25(2), 11–16.Google Scholar

Valente, T. W. & Pitts, S. R. (2017). An appraisal of social network theory and analysis as applied to public health: challenges and opportunities. Annual Review of Public Health, 38(4), 1–4, p. 16.Google Scholar

Van der Hulst, R. C. (2009). Introduction to social network analysis as an investigative tool. Trends in Organized Crime, 12, 101–121.Google Scholar

Vigil, J. D. (1988). Group process and street identity: adolescent Chicano gang members. Ethos, 16(4), 412–445.Google Scholar

Vogt, T. M., Mullooly, J. P., Ernst, D., Pope, C. R., & Hollis, J. F.. (1992). Social networks as predictors of ischemic heart disease, cancer, stroke and hypertension: incidence, survival and mortality. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, 45(6), 659–666.Google Scholar

Ward, M. D., Stovel, K., & Sacks, A. (2011). Network analysis and political science. Annual Review of Political Science, 14, 243–264.Google Scholar

Wasserman, S. & Faust, K. (1994). Social Network Analysis. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Watts, D. J. (2004). The “new” science of networks. Annual Review of Sociology, 30, 243–70.Google Scholar

Wellman, B. & Berkowitz, S. D. (1988). Social Structures: A Network Approach (Vol. 2). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Wellman, B., Wong, R. Y., Tindal, D., & Nazer, N. (1997). A decade of network change: turnover, persistence and stability in personal communities. Social Networks, 19, 27–50.Google Scholar

Zemljic, B. & Hlebec, V. (2005). Reliability of measures of centrality and prominence. Social Networks, 27, 73–88.Google Scholar

Abelson, R. P. (1981). Psychological status of the script concept. American Psychologist, 36, 715–729.Google Scholar

Anderson, C. A., Benjamin, A. J., & Bartholow, B. D. (1998). Does the gun pull the trigger? Automatic priming effects of weapon pictures and weapon names. Psychological Science, 9, 308–314.Google Scholar

Anderson, C. A., Berkowitz, L., Donnerstein, E., Huesmann, L. R., Johnson, J., Linz, D., et al. (2003). The influence of media violence on youth. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 4(3), 81–110.Google Scholar

Anderson, C. A. & Bushman, B. J. (2001). Effects of violent video games on aggressive behavior, aggressive cognition, aggressive affect, physiological arousal, and prosocial behavior: A meta-analytic review of the scientific literature. Psychological Science, 12, 353–359.Google Scholar

Anderson, C. A. & Huesmann, L. R. (2003). Human aggression: A social-cognitive view. In Hogg, M. A. & Cooper, J. (Eds), Handbook of social psychology (pp. 296–323). London: Sage.Google Scholar

Attar, B. K., Guerra, N. G., & Tolan, P. H. (1994). Neighborhood disadvantage, stressful life events, and adjustment in urban elementary school children. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 23(4), 391–400.Google Scholar

Bandura, A. (1973). Aggression: A social learning theory analysis. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.Google Scholar

Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.Google Scholar

Bandura, A. & Adams, N.E. (1977). Analysis of self-efficacy theory of behavioral change. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 1, 287–310.Google Scholar

Bandura, A., Grusec, J. E., & Menlove, F. L. (1967). Vicarious extinction of avoidance behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 5, 16–23.Google Scholar

Bandura, A. & Menlove, F. L. (1968). Factors determining vicarious extinction of avoidance behavior through symbolic modeling. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 8, 99–108.Google Scholar

Bandura, A., Ross, D., & Ross, S. A. (1961). Transmission of aggression through imitation of aggressive models. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 63, 575–582.Google Scholar

Bandura, A., Ross, D., & Ross, S. A. (1963a). Imitation of film-mediated aggressive models. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 66, 3–11.Google Scholar

Bandura, A., Ross, D., & Ross, S. A. (1963b). A comparative test of the status envy, social power, and secondary reinforcement theories of identificatory learning. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 67, 527–534.Google Scholar

Bandura, A., Ross, D., & Ross, S. A. (1963c). Vicarious reinforcement and imitative learning. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 67, 601–607.Google Scholar

Bargh, J. A., & Chartrand, T. L. (1999). The unbearable automaticity of being. American Psychologist, 54, 462–479.Google Scholar

Bargh, J. A. & Pietromonaco, P. (1982). Automatic information processing and social perception: The influence of trait information presented outside of conscious awareness on impression formation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 43, 437–449.Google Scholar

Bartholow, B. D., Anderson, C. A., & Carnagey, N. L. (2005). Interactive effects of life experience and situational cues on aggression: The weapons priming effect in hunters and nonhunters. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 41(1), 48–60.Google Scholar

Berkowitz, L. (1962). Aggression: A social psychological analysis. New York: McGraw-Hill.Google Scholar

Berkowitz, L. (1983). Aversively stimulated aggression: Some parallels and differences in research with animals and humans. American Psychologist, 38, 1135–1144.Google Scholar

Berkowitz, L. (1993). Aggression: Its causes, consequences, and control. New York: McGraw-Hill.Google Scholar

Berkowitz, L. & LePage, A. (1967). Weapons as aggression-eliciting stimuli. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 7, 202–207.Google Scholar

Boxer, P., Huesmann, L. R., Bushman, B., O’Brien, M., & Moceri, D. (2009). The role of violent media preference in cumulative developmental risk for violence and general aggression. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 38(3), 417–428.Google Scholar

Bryant, J. & Zillmann, D. (1979). Effect of intensification of annoyance through unrelated residual excitation on substantially delayed hostile behavior. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 15, 470–480.Google Scholar

Bushman, B. J. & Huesmann, L. R. (2001). Effects of televised violence on aggression. In Singer, D. G. & Singer, J. L. (Eds), Handbook of children and the media (pp. 223–254). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Google Scholar

Carlson, M., Marcus-Newhall, A., & Miller, N. (1990). Effects of situational aggression cues: A quantitative review. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 58, 622–633.Google Scholar

Carnagey, N. L., Bushman, B. J. & Anderson, C. A. (2005). Video game violence desensitizes players to real world violence. Manuscript submitted for publication.Google Scholar

Dodge, K. A. (1986). A social information processing model of social competence in children. In Perlmutter, M. (Ed.), The Minnesota symposium on child psychology (Vol. 18, pp. 77–125). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar

Dodge, K. A. (1993). Social-cognitive mechanisms in the development of conduct disorder and depression. Annual Review of Psychology, 44, 559–584.Google Scholar

Dodge, K. A., Malone, P. S., Lansford, J. E., Sorbring, E., Skinner, A. T., Tapanya, S., Tirado, L. M. U., Zelli, A., Alampay, L. P., Al-Hassan, S. M., Bacchini, D., Bombi, A. S., Bornstein, M. H., Chang, L., Deater-Deckard, K., Di Giunta, L., Oburu, P., & Pastorelli, C. (2015). Hostile attributional bias and aggressive behavior in global context. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 112(30), 9310–9315.Google Scholar

Dubow, E. F., Huesmann, L. R., & Boxer, P. (2009). A Social-Cognitive-Ecological Framework for Understanding the Impact of Exposure to Persistent Ethnic-Political Violence on Children’s Psychosocial Adjustment. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 12(2), 113–126.Google Scholar

Ekman, P. (1992). Are there basic emotions? Psychological Review, 99, 550–553.Google Scholar

Eron, L. D., Huesmann, L. R., Lefkowitz, M. M., & Walder, L. O. (1972). Does television violence cause aggression? American Psychologist, 27, 253–263.Google Scholar

Eron, L. D., Walder, L. O., & Lefkowitz, M. M. (1971). The learning of aggression in children. Boston: Little, Brown.Google Scholar

Eysenck, H. J. (1997). Personality and the bio-social model of anti-social and criminal behaviour. In Raine, A., Farrington, D. P., Brennen, P. O., & Mednick, S. A. (Eds), The biosocial basis of violence (pp. 21–37). New York: Plenum Press.Google Scholar

Fiske, S. T. & Taylor, S.E. (1984). Social cognition. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.Google Scholar

Fowles, D. (1993). Electrodermal activity and antisocial behavior: Empirical findings and theoretical issues. In Roy, J.-C., Boucsein, W., Fowles, D., & Gruzelier, J. (Eds), Progress in electrodermal research (pp. 223–237). London: Plenum Press.Google Scholar

Geen, R. G. & O’Neal, E. C. (1969). Activation of cue-elicited aggression by general arousal. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 11, 289–292.Google Scholar

Guerra, N. G., Huesmann, L. R., & Spindler, A. J. (2003). Community violence exposure, social cognition, and aggression among urban elementary-school children. Child Development, 74(5), 1507–1522.Google Scholar

Hare, R. D. (1965). A conflict and learning theory analysis of psychopathic behavior. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 12–19.Google Scholar

Hare, R. D. (1978). Electrodermal and cardiovascular correlates of psychopathy. In Hare, R. D. & Schalling, D. (Eds), Psychopathic behavior: Approaches to research (pp. 107–144). New York: John Wiley & Sons.Google Scholar

Huesmann, L. R. (1986). Psychological processes promoting the relation between exposure to media violence and aggressive behavior by the viewer. Journal of Social Issues, 42(3), 125–139.Google Scholar

Huesmann, L. R. (1988). An information processing model for the development of aggression. Aggressive Behavior, 14, 13–24.Google Scholar

Huesmann, L. R. (1997). Observational learning of violent behavior: Social and biosocial processes. In Raine, A., Farrington, D. P., Brennen, P. O., & Mednick, S. A. (Eds), The biosocial basis of violence (pp. 69–88). New York: Plenum Press.Google Scholar

Huesmann, L. R. (1998). The role of social information processing and cognitive schema in the acquisition and maintenance of habitual aggressive behavior. In Geen, R. G. & Donnerstein, E. (Eds), Human aggression: Theories, research, and implications for social policy (pp. 73–109). New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar

Huesmann, L. R. (2012). The Contagion of Violence: The extent, the processes, and the outcomes. In Patel, D. M. & Taylor, R. M. (Eds), The Social and Economic Costs of Violence (pp. 63–83), Forum on Global Violence Prevention, Institute of Medicine, National Academy of Sciences, Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.Google Scholar

Huesmann, L. R. (2016). The role of normative beliefs in mediating the long-term effects of exposure to media violence on aggression. Presented at meetings of the International Society for Research on Aggression, July 2016, Sydney, Australia.Google Scholar

Huesmann, L. R., Boxer, P., Moceri, D., Bushman, B. J., Johnson, T. J., O’Brien, M., & Hamburger, M. (under review, 2018). The Relation of Violent and Criminal Behavior in Adolescents and Young Adults to Childhood Habitual Exposure to Media Violence. Aggressive Behavior.Google Scholar

Huesmann, L. R., Dubow, E. F., & Boxer, P. (2009). Social Cognitive Mediators of the Relation between Exposure to Violence during Childhood and Adolescence and Adulthood Aggression: Findings from the Columbia County Longitudinal Study. In E. F. Dubow (Chair), Social cognitive mediators for developmental effects of exposure to violence. Presented at the biennial meeting of the Society for the Study of Human Development, October, 2009, Ann Arbor, MI.Google Scholar

Huesmann, L. R., Dubow, E. F., Boxer, P., Landau, S. F., Gvirsman, S. D., & Shikaki, K. (2016). Children’s exposure to violent political conflict stimulates aggression at peers by increasing emotional distress, aggressive script rehearsal, and normative beliefs favoring aggression, Development and Psychopathology. doi: 10.1017/S0954579416001115, 11/21/16, 1–12.Google Scholar

Huesmann, L. R., Dubow, E. F., Boxer, P., & Shikaki, K. (July 2016). Consequences of Exposure to War Violence: Discriminating Those with Heightened Risk for Aggression from Those with Heightened Risk for PTS Symptoms. Presented at meetings of the International Society for Research on Aggression, Sydney, Australia.Google Scholar

Huesmann, L. R., Moise, J., Podolski, C. P., & Eron, L. D. (2003). Longitudinal relations between childhood exposure to media violence and adult aggression and violence: 1977–1992. Developmental Psychology, 39(2), 201–221.Google Scholar

Huesmann, L. R. & Kirwil, L. (2007). Why observing violence increases the risk of violent behavior in the observer. In Flannery, D. J., Vazsonyi, A. T., & Waldman, I. D. (Eds), The Cambridge Handbook of Violent Behavior and Aggression (pp. 545–570). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Huesmann, L. R. & Miller, L. S. (1994). Long-term effects of repeated exposure to media violence in childhood. In Huesmann, L. R. (Ed.), Aggressive behavior: Current perspectives (pp. 153–183). New York: Plenum Press.Google Scholar

Huesmann, L. R., Moise-Titus, J., Podolski, C. L., & Eron, L. (2003). Longitudinal relations between children’s exposure to TV violence and their aggressive and violent behavior in young adulthood: 1977–1992. Developmental Psychology, 39, 201–221.Google Scholar

Krahe, B., Moeller, I., Huesmann, L. R., Kirwil, L., Felber, J., & Berger, A. (2011). Desensitization to media violence: Links with habitual media violence exposure, aggressive cognitions, and aggressive behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 100(4), 630–646.Google Scholar

Leyens, J. P. & Fraczek, A. (1983). Aggression as an interpersonal phenomenon. In Tajfel, H. (Ed.), The social dimension (Vol. 1, p. 192). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Lykken, D. T. (1995). The antisocial personalities. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar

McSweeney, F. K. & Swindell, S. (2002). Common processes may contribute to extinction and habituation. Journal of General Psychology, 129(4), 364–400.Google Scholar

Meltzoff, A. N. (2005 ). Imitation and other minds: The “Like Me” hypothesis. In Hurley, S. & Chater, N. (Eds), Perspectives on imitation: From mirror neurons to memes (Vol. 2, pp. 55–78). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar

Meltzoff, A. N. & Moore, K. M. (1977). Imitation of facial and manual gestures by human neonates. Science, 109, 77–78.Google Scholar

Nathanson, A. (1999). Identifying and explaining the relationship between parental mediation and children’s aggression. Communication Research, 26(2), 124–143.Google Scholar

Neuman, R. & Strack, F. (2000). “Mood contagion”: The automatic transfer of mood between persons. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79, 211–223.Google Scholar

Paik, H. & Comstock, G. (1994). The effects of television violence on antisocial behavior: A meta-analysis. Communication Research, 21, 516–546.Google Scholar

Press, C., Bird, G., Flach, R., & Heyes, C. (2005). Robotic movements elicit automatic imitation. Cognitive Brain Research, 25, 632–640.Google Scholar

Pantalon, M. V. & Motta, R. W. (1998). Effectiveness of anxiety management training in the treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder: A preliminary report. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 29, 21–29.Google Scholar

Prinz, J. J. (2005). Imitation and moral development. In Hurley, S. & Chater, N. (Eds), Perspectives on imitation: From mirror neurons to memes (Vol. 2, pp. 267–282). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar

Raine, A., Reynolds, C., Venables, P. H., & Mednick, S. A. (1997). Biosocial bases of aggressive behavior in childhood. In Raine, A., Farrington, D. P., Brennen, P. O., & Mednick, S. A. (Eds), The biosocial basis of violence (pp. 107–126). New York: Plenum Press.Google Scholar

Raine, A., Venables, P. H., & Williams, M. (1990). Relationships between CNS and ANS measures of arousal at age 15 and criminality at age 24. Archives of General Psychiatry, 47, 1003–1007.Google Scholar

Savage, J. (2004). Does viewing violent media really cause criminal violence? A methodological review. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 10, 99–128.Google Scholar

Schneider, W. & Shiffrin, R. M. (1977). Controlled and automatic human information processing: I. Detection, search, and attention. Psychological Review, 84, 1-66.Google Scholar

Shiffrin, R. M. & Schneider, W. (1977). Controlled and automatic human information processing: II. Perceptual learning, automatic attending, and general theory.Google Scholar

Strack, F., Martin, L., & Stepper, S. (1988). Inhibiting and facilitating conditions of the human smile: A nonobtrusive test of the facial feedback hypothesis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54(5), 768–777.Google Scholar

Strelau, J. (1982). Biologically determined dimensions of personality or temperament? Personality and Individual Differences, 3, 355–360.Google Scholar

Wolpe, J. (1958). Psychotherapy by reciprocal inhibition. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar

Zajonc, R. B., Murphy, S. T., & Inglehart, M. (1989). Feeling and facial efference: Implications of vascular theory of emotions. Psychological Review, 96, 395–416.Google Scholar

Zuckermann, M. (1979). Sensation seeking: Beyond the optimal level of arousal. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar

Anderson, M., Kaufman, J., Simon, T., Barrios, L., Paulozzi, L., Ryan, G., … & the School-Associated Violent Deaths Study Group. (2001). School-associated violent deaths in the United States, 1994–1999. Journal of the American Medical Association, 286, 2695–2702.Google Scholar

Auter, Z. (2016, August 19). U.S. Parents’ Fears for Child’s Safety at School Unchanged. Retrieved January 3, 2017 from www.gallup.com/poll/194693/parents-fears-child-safety-school-unchanged.aspx.Google Scholar

Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.Google Scholar

Barrish, H. H., Saunders, M., & Wolf, M. M. (1969). Good behavior game: Effects of individual contingencies for group consequences on disruptive behavior in a classroom. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 2, 119–124.Google Scholar

Bradshaw, C. P., Koth, C. W., Thornton, L. A., & Leaf, P. J. (2009). Altering school climate through school-wide positive behavioral interventions and supports: Findings from a group-randomized effectiveness trial. Prevention Science, 10, 100–115.Google Scholar

Bradshaw, C. P., Mitchell, M. M., & Leaf, P. J. (2010). Examining the effects of school-wide positive behavioral interventions and Supports on student outcomes: Results from a randomized controlled effectiveness trial in elementary schools. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 12, 133–148.Google Scholar

Brezina, T., Piquero, A. R., & Mazerolle, P. (2001). Student anger and aggressive behavior in school: An initial test of Agnew’s macro-level strain theory. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 38, 362–386.Google Scholar

Bryk, A. S. & Driscoll, M. E. (1988). The school as community: Theoretical foundations, contextual influences, and consequences for students and teachers. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin, National Center on Effective Secondary Schools.Google Scholar

Bryk, A. S., Lee, V. E., & Holland, P. B. (1993). Catholic schools and the common good. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar

Bureau of Labor Statistics (n. d.). American Time Use Survey. Statistics produced January 4, 2017 using the tool at www.bls.gov/tus/database.htm.Google Scholar

Conduct Problems Prevention Research Group (1999a). Initial impact of the Fast Track prevention trial for conduct problems: I. The high risk sample. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 67, 631–647.Google Scholar

Conduct Problems Prevention Research Group (1999b). Initial impact of the Fast Track prevention trial for conduct problems: II. Classroom effects. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 67, 648–657.Google Scholar

Conduct Problems Prevention Research Group (2007). Fast Track randomized controlled trial to prevent externalizing psychiatric disorders: Findings from grades 3 to 9. Journal of the American Academy of Child Adolescent Psychiatry, 46, 1250–1262.Google Scholar

Conduct Problems Prevention Research Group. (2010a). The effects of a multiyear universal social–emotional learning program: The role of student and school characteristics. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 78, 156–168.Google Scholar

Conduct Problems Prevention Research Group. (2010b). Fast track intervention effects on youth arrest and delinquency. Journal of Experimental Criminology 6, 131–157.Google Scholar

Cook, P. J., Gottfredson, D. C., & Na, C. (2010). School crime control and prevention. InTonry, M. (Ed.), Crime and Justice: A Review of Research. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar

Dodge, K. A., Bates, J. E., & Pettit, G. S. (1990). Mechanisms in the cycle of violence. Science, 250, 1678–1683.Google Scholar

Dolan, L. J., Kellam, S. G., Brown, C. H., Werthamer-Larsson, L., Rebok, G. W., Mayer, L. S., … & Wheeler, L. (1993). The short-term impact of two classroom-based preventive interventions on aggressive and shy behaviors and poor achievement. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 14, 317–345.Google Scholar

Eliot, M., Cornell, D., Gregory, A., & Fan, X. (2010). Supportive school climate and student willingness to seek help for bullying and threats of violence. Journal of School Psychology, 48, 533–553.Google Scholar

Felson, R. B., Liska, A. E., South, S. J., & McNulty, T. L. (1994). The subculture of violence and delinquency: Individual vs. school context effects. Social Forces, 73, 155–173.Google Scholar

Foshee, V. A., Bauman, K. E., Arriaga, X. B., Helms, R. W., Koch, G. G., & Linder, G. F. (1998). An evaluation of Safe Dates, an adolescent dating violence prevention program. American Journal of Public Health, 88, 45–50.Google Scholar

Foshee, V. A., Linder, G. F., Bauman, K. E., Langwick, S. A., Arriaga, X. B., Heath, J. L., … & Bangdiwala, S. (1996). The safe dates project: Theoretical basis, evaluation design, and selected baseline findings. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 12, 39–47.Google Scholar

Galloway, D., Martin, R., & Wilcox, B. (1985). Persistent absence from school and exclusion from school: The predictive power of school and community variables. British Educational Research Journal, 11, 51–61.Google Scholar

Ginsberg, C. & Loffredo, L. (1993). Violence-related attitudes and behaviors of high school students–New York City 1992. Journal of School Health, 63, 438–439.Google Scholar

Gottfredson, D. C. (1986). An empirical test of school-based environmental and individual interventions to reduce the risk of delinquent behavior. Criminology, 24, 705–731.Google Scholar

Gottfredson, D. C. & Gottfredson, G. D. (1992). Theory-guided investigation: Three field experiments. In McCord, J. & Tremblay, R. (Eds), The prevention of antisocial behavior in children (pp. 311–329). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar

Gottfredson, D. C. & Gottfredson, G. D. (2002). Quality of school-based prevention programs: Results from a national survey. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 39, 3–35.Google Scholar

Gottfredson, D.C. Weisman, S. A., Soulé, D. A., Womer, , , S. C., & Lu, S. (2004). Do after school programs reduce delinquency? Prevention Science, 5(4), 253–266.Google Scholar

Gottfredson, D. C., Wilson, D. B., & Najaka, S. S. (2002). School based crime prevention. In Sherman, L. W., Farrington, D. P., Welsh, B. C., & MacKenzie, D. L. (Eds), Evidence-based crime prevention (pp. 56–164). London: Routledge.Google Scholar

Gottfredson, G. D. (1984). A theory ridden approach to program evaluation: A method for stimulating researcher implementer collaboration. American Psychologist, 39, 1101–1112.Google Scholar

Gottfredson, G. D. & Gottfredson, D. C. (1985). Victimization in schools. New York: Plenum.Google Scholar

Gottfredson, G. D. (1987). Peer group interventions to reduce the risk of delinquent behavior: A selective review and a new evaluation. Criminology, 25, 671–714.Google Scholar

Gottfredson, G. D. & Gottfredson, D. C. (2001). What schools do to prevent problem behavior and promote safe environments. Journal of Educational and Psychological Consultation, 12, 313–344.Google Scholar

Gottfredson, G. D. Gottfredson, D. C., Czeh, E. R., Cantor, D., Crosse, S. B., & Hantman, I. (2000). National Study of Delinquency Prevention in Schools: Final report. Ellicott City: Gottfredson Associates, Inc.Google Scholar

Gottfredson, G. D., Gottfredson, D. C., Payne, A. A., & Gottfredson, N. C. (2005). School climate predictors of school disorder: Results from the National Study of Delinquency Prevention in Schools. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 42, 412–444.Google Scholar

Gray, L. & Lewis, L. (2015). Public School Safety and Discipline: 2013–14 (NCES 2015–051). US Department of Education. Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics. Retrieved January 3, 2017 from http://nces.ed.gov/pubsearch.Google Scholar

Gregory, A., Cornell, D., Fan, X., Sheras, P., & Shih, T. (2010). Authoritative school discipline: High school practices associated with lower student bullying and victimization. Journal of Educational Psychology, 102, 483–496.Google Scholar

Hahn, A., Leavitt, T., & Aaron, P. (1994). Evaluation of the Quantum Opportunities Program (QOP): Did the program work?: A report on the post secondary outcomes and cost-effectiveness of the QOP Program. Unpublished manuscript, Brandeis University, Waltham, MA.Google Scholar

Hawkins, J. D., Catalano, R. F., Kosterman, R., Abbott, R., & Hill, K. G. (1999). Preventing adolescent healthrisk behaviors by strengthening protection during childhood. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine, 153, 226–234.Google Scholar

Hawkins, J. D., Von Cleve, E., & Catalano, R. F. (1991). Reducing early childhood aggression: Results of a primary prevention program. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 30, 208–217.Google Scholar

Hellman, D. A. & Beaton, S. (1986). The pattern of violence in urban public schools: The influence of school and community. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 23, 102–127.Google Scholar

Jones, J. M. (2005, September 20). Fear of children’s safety at school remains low: Environment a big fear factor. Retrieved October 31, 2005 from http://institution.gallup.com.proxy-um.researchport.umd.edu/content/default.aspx?ci=18694.Google Scholar

Kaslow, N. J. & Thompson, M. (1998). Applying the criteria for empirically supported treatments to studies of psychosocial interventions for child and adolescent depression. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 27, 146–155.Google Scholar

Kazdin, A. E. & Weisz, J. R. (1998). Identifying and developing empirically supported child and adolescent treatments. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 66, 19–36.Google Scholar

Kupchik, A. & Monahan, T. (2006). The New American School: Preparation for post-industrial discipline. British Journal of Sociology of Education, 27(5), 617–631. doi: 10.1080/01425690600958816.Google Scholar

Lee, V. E. & Croninger, R. G. (1996). The social organization of safe high schools. In Borman, K. M., Cookson, P. W., Jr., & Spade, J. Z. (Eds), Implementing educational reform: Sociological perspectives on educational policy (pp. 359–392). Norwood, NJ: Ablex Publishing Corporation.Google Scholar

Lipsey, M. W. & Wilson, D. B. (1998). Effective intervention for serious juvenile offenders. In Loeber, R. & Farrington, D. P. (Eds), Serious and violent juvenile offenders: risk factors and successful intervention (pp. 248–283). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Google Scholar

Meehl, P. E. & Rosen, A. (1955). Antecedent probability and the efficiency of psychometric signs, patterns, or cutting scores. Psychological Bulletin, 52, 194–216.Google Scholar

Moore, M. H., Petrie, C. V., Braga, A. A., & McLaughlin, B. L. (Eds). (2003). Deadly lessons: Understanding lethal school violence. Washington, DC: National Academies Press.Google Scholar

Morgan, R. E., Musu-Gillette, L., Robers, S. & Zhang, A. (2015). Indicators of school crime and safety: 2014. (NCES 2015–072/NCJ 248036). National Center for Education Statistics, US Department of Education, and Bureau of Justice Statistics, Office of Justice Programs, US Department of Justice. Washington, DC.Google Scholar

Na, C. & Gottfredson, D. (2011). Police officers in schools: Effects on school crime and the processing of offending behaviors. Justice Quarterly, 30(4): 619–650.Google Scholar

National Institute of Education. (1978). Violent schools–Safe schools: The Safe School Study report to Congress. Washington, DC: Author.Google Scholar

National School Safety Center. (2005, April). School Associated Violent Deaths. Westlake Village, CA: Author. Retrieved October 31, 2005 from www.nssc1.org.Google Scholar

Olweus, D., Limber, S., & Mihalic, S. F. (1999). Blueprints for violence prevention: Bullying prevention program. Center for the Study and Prevention of Violence, Boulder, CO.Google Scholar

Ostroff, C. (1992). The relationship between satisfaction, attitudes, and performance: An organizational level analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology, 77, 963–974.Google Scholar

Owens, E. (2016). Testing the school-to-prison pipeline. Journal of Policy Analysis and Management, 1–38.Google Scholar

Payne, A. A., Gottfredson, D. C., & Gottfredson, G. D. (2003). Schools as communities: The relationships among communal school organization, student bonding, and school disorder. Criminology, 41, 749–778.Google Scholar

Payne, A. A. (2008). A multilevel model of the relationships among communal school disorder, student bonding, and delinquency. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 45(4), 429–455.Google Scholar

Sherman, L. W. & Berk, R. A. (1984). The specific deterrent effects of arrest for domestic assault. American Sociological Review, 49, 261–272.Google Scholar

Stewart, E. A. (2003). School social bonds, school climate, and school misbehavior: A multilevel analysis. Justice Quarterly, 20, 575–601.Google Scholar

Sugai, G. & Horner, R. H. (2008). What we know and need to know about preventing problem behavior in schools. Exceptionality, 16, 67–77.Google Scholar

Taggart, R. (1995). Quantum Opportunity Program. Philadelphia, PA: Opportunities Industrialization Centers of America.Google Scholar

Tolan, P. H. & Gorman-Smith, D. (1998). Development of serious and violent offending careers. In Loeber, R. & Farrington, D. P. (Eds), Serious and violent juvenile offenders: Risk factors and successful interventions (pp. 68–85). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Google Scholar

Tolan, P., Henry, D., Schoeny, M., Bass, A., Lovegrove, P., & Nichols, E. (2013). Mentoring Interventions to Affect Juvenile Delinquency and Associated Problems: A Systematic Review. Campbell Systematic Reviews (2013), 10. doi: 10.4073/csr.2013.10.U.S.Google Scholar

Wagenaar, A. C., Murray, D. M., & Toomey, T. L. (2000). Communities mobilizing for change on alcohol (CMCA): Effects of a randomized trial on arrests and traffic crashes. Addiction, 95(2), 209–217.Google Scholar

Welsh, W. N., Greene, J. R., & Jenkins, P. H. (1999). School disorder: The influence of individual, institutional, and community factors. Criminology, 37, 73–116.Google Scholar

Welsh, W. N., Stokes, R., & Greene, J. R. (2000). A macro-level model of school disorder. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 37, 243–83.Google Scholar

Wilcox, P. & Clayton, R. R. (2001). A multilevel analysis of school-based weapon possession. Justice Quarterly, 18, 509–541.Google Scholar

Zhang, A., Musu-Gillette, L., & Oudekerk, B. A. (2016). Indicators of school crime and safety: 2015 (NCES 2016–079/NCJ 249758). Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics, US Department of Education, and Bureau of Justice Statistics, Office of Justice Programs, US Department of Justice.Google Scholar

Amos, T. & Kahneman, D. (1982). Availability: A heuristic for judging frequency and probability. In Kahneman, D., Slovic, P., & Tversky, A. (Eds), Judgment under uncertainty: Heuristics and biases (pp. 163–178). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Biagi, S. (1990). Media impact: An introduction to mass media. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.Google Scholar

Bordley, R. F. (1982). Public perceptions of crime: A derivation of Warr’s power function from the Bayesian odds relations. Social Forces, 61, 134–143.Google Scholar

Briggs, A. & Burke, P. (2002). A social history of the media: From Gutenberg to the internet. Malden, MA: Blackwell.Google Scholar

Combs, B. & Slovic, P. (1979). Newspaper coverage of causes of death. Journalism Quarterly, 56, 837–843.Google Scholar

Conklin, J. (1975). The impact of crime. New York: Macmillan.Google Scholar

DuBow, F., McCabe, E., & Kaplan, G. (1979). Reactions to crime: A critical review of the literature. Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office.Google Scholar

Ericson, R. V., Baranek, P. M., & Chan, J. B. L. (1987). Visualizing deviance: A study of news organization. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.Google Scholar

Ferraro, K. F. (1995). Fear of crime: Interpreting victimization risk. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.Google Scholar

Ferraro, K. F. (1996). Women’s fear of victimization: Shadow of sexual assault? Social Forces, 75, 667–690.Google Scholar

Ferraro, K. F. & LaGrange, R. (1987). The measurement of fear of crime. Sociological Inquiry, 57, 70–101.Google Scholar

Graber, D. A. (1980). Crime news and the public. New York: Praeger.Google Scholar

Haghighi, B. & Sorensen, J. (1996). America’s fear of crime. In Flanagan, T. J. & Longmire, D. R. (Eds), Americans view crime and justice: A national public opinion survey (pp. 16–30). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.Google Scholar

Heath, R. L. & Bryant, J. (2000). Human communication theory and research (2nd ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar

Jowett, G. & Linton, J. M. (1989). Movies as mass communication (2nd ed.). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.Google Scholar

LaGrange, R. L. & Ferraro, K. F. (1987). The elderly’s fear of crime: A critical examination of the research. Research on Aging, 9, 372–391.Google Scholar

LaGrange, R. L. & Ferraro, K. F. (1989). Assessing age and gender differences in perceived risk and fear of crime. Criminology, 27, 697–719.Google Scholar

LaGrange, R. L., Ferraro, K. F. & Supancic, M. (1992). Perceived risk and fear of crime: Role of social and physical incivilities. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 29, 311–334.Google Scholar

Lichtenstein, S., Slovic, P., Fischoff, B., Layman, M., & Combs, B. (1978). Judged frequency of lethal events. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 4, 551–578.Google Scholar

Maguire, K. & Pastore, A. L. (2001). Sourcebook of criminal justice statistics 2000. US Department of Justice. Bureau of Justice Statistics. Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office.Google Scholar

Mayes, A. (1979). The physiology of fear and anxiety. In Sluckin, W. (Ed.), Fear in Animals and Man (pp. 24–55). New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.Google Scholar

National Opinion Research Center. (2004). General social survey codebook. Retrieved July 13, 2004 from http://webapp.icpsr.umich.edu/GSS/.Google Scholar

National Research Council, Committee on Risk Perception and Communication. (1989). Improving risk communication. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.Google Scholar

O’Brien, R. M. (1995). Crime and victimization data. In Sheley, J. (Ed.), Criminology: A contemporary handbook (2nd ed., pp. 57–80). New York: Wadsworth.Google Scholar

Postman, N. (1986). Amusing ourselves to death: Public discourse in the age of show business. New York: Viking Penguin.Google Scholar

President’s Commission on Law Enforcement and Administration of Justice. (1967). The challenge of crime in a free society. Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office.Google Scholar

Roberts, J. V. & Stalans, L. J. (1997). Public opinion, crime, and criminal justice. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.Google Scholar

Roshier, B. (1973). The selection of crime news by the press. In Cohen, S., & Young, J. (Eds), The manufacture of news (pp. 28–39). Beverly Hills: Sage.Google Scholar

Russell, P. A. (1979). Fear-evoking stimuli. In Sluckin, W. (Ed.), Fear in animals and man (pp. 86–124). New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.Google Scholar

Sheley, J. S. & Ashkins, C. D. (1981). Crime, crime news, and crime views. Public Opinion Quarterly, 45, 492–506.Google Scholar

Sherizen, S. (1978). Social creation of crime news: All the news fitted to print. In Winick, C. (Ed.), Deviance and mass media (pp. 203–224). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.Google Scholar

Skogan, W. G. (1990). Disorder and decline: Crime and the spiral of decay in American neighborhoods. New York: Free Press.Google Scholar

Skogan, W. G. & Maxfield, M. G. (1981). Coping with crime: Individual and neighborhood reactions. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications.Google Scholar

Slovic, P., Fischoff, B., & Lichtenstein, S. (1979). Rating the risks. Environment, 21, 14–20, 36–39.Google Scholar

Slovic, P., Fischoff, B., & Lichtenstein, S. (1980). Facts and fears: Understanding perceived risk. In Schwing, R. C., & Albers, W. A., Jr. (Eds), Societal risk assessment: How safe is safe enough? (pp. 181–214). New York: Plenum.Google Scholar

Slovic, P., Fischoff, B., & Lichtenstein, S. (1982). Facts versus fears: Understanding perceived risk. In Kahneman, D., Slovic, P., & Tversky, A. (Eds), Judgment under uncertainty: Heuristics and biases (pp. 463–492). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Sluckin, W. (1979). Fear in animals and man. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.Google Scholar

Stafford, M. C. & Galle, O. R. (1984). Victimization rates, exposure to risk, and fear of crime. Criminology, 22, 173–185.Google Scholar

Surette, R. (1998). Media, crime, and criminal justice: Images and realities (2nd ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.Google Scholar

Thomson, R. (1979). The concept of fear. In Sluckin, W. (Ed.), Fear in animals and man (pp. 1–23). New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.Google Scholar

Tversky, A. & Kahneman, D. (1982). Availability: A heuristic for judging frequency and probability. In D. Kahneman, P. Slovic, & A. Tversky (Eds), Judgment under uncertainty; Heuristics and biases (pp. 163–178). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Warr, M. (1980). The accuracy of public beliefs about crime. Social Forces, 59, 456–470.Google Scholar

Warr, M. (1984). Fear of victimization: Why are women and the elderly more afraid? Social Science Quarterly, 65, 681–702.Google Scholar

Warr, M. (1985). Fear of rape among urban women. Social Problems, 32, 238–250.Google Scholar

Warr, M. (1990). Dangerous situations: Social context and fear of victimization. Social Forces, 68, 891–907.Google Scholar

Warr, M. (1994). Public perceptions and reactions to violent offending and victimization. In Reiss, A. J., Jr. & Roth, J. A. (Eds), Understanding and preventing violence. Consequences and Control (Vol. 4, pp. 1–66). Washington, DC: National Academy Press.Google Scholar