Skip to main content Accessibility help
×
Hostname: page-component-848d4c4894-4rdrl Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-07-01T10:45:45.495Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

21 - Emotional Disturbance versus Social Maladjustment

from Part IV - Behavioral and Social-Emotional Interventions

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  18 September 2020

Frank C. Worrell
Affiliation:
University of California, Berkeley
Tammy L. Hughes
Affiliation:
Duquesne University, Pittsburgh
Dante D. Dixson
Affiliation:
Michigan State University
Get access

Summary

Labeling a student as socially maladjusted has been a source of controversy since 1975. The controversy persists because, to date, there is no accepted definition of the term “social maladjustment”, and no guidance provided by IDEA on what school teams should consider when using the exclusion for determining if a child is eligible for special education under the category of an emotional disturbance. When school teams determine a child is socially maladjusted, this classification is often used to exclude children demonstrating objectionable behaviors (i.e., delinquent, disruptive, and impulsive actions) from special education services and protections. Without tailored school interventions, students are disproportionately exposed to disciplinary actions, and other mental health services (e.g., MTSS) become secondary, if they are offered at all. Assessment strategies that identify the underlying causes of aggressive behaviors in children can inform school teams on how to provide therapeutic environments, approaches to discipline and accountability, and differential skill development.

Type
Chapter
Information
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2020

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Advancement Project, Education Law Center–PA, FairTest, The Forum for Education and Democracy, Juvenile Law Center, & NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund, Inc. (2011). Federal policy, ESEA reauthorization, and the school-to-prison pipeline. Washington, DC: Author.Google Scholar
Barrett, S., Eber, L., & Weist, M. (2013). Positive behavioral interventions & supports–OSEP. Retrieved from www.pbis.org/resource/the-interconnected-systems-framework-201-when-school-mental-health-is-integrated-within-a-multi-tiered-system-of-supportGoogle Scholar
Bernstein, D. P., & Fink, L. (1998). Childhood Trauma Questionnaire: A retrospective self-report manual. San Antonio, TX: The Psychological Corporation.Google Scholar
Bower, E. M. (1982). Defining emotional disturbance: Public policy and research. Psychology in the Schools, 19: 5560. https://doi.org/10.1002/1520-6807(19820108)19:1<55::aid-pits2310190112>3.0.CO;2-2Google Scholar
Bracha, H. S. (2004). Freeze, flight, fright, faint: Adaptationist perspective on the acute stress response spectrum. CNS Spectrum, 9, 679685. http://doi.org/10.1017/S1092852900001954Google Scholar
Briere, J. (1996). Trauma Symptom Checklist for Children: Professional manual. State, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources Inc.Google Scholar
Chafouleas, S. M., Johnson, A. H., Overstreet, S., & Santos, N. M. (2015). Toward a blueprint for trauma-informed service delivery in schools. School Mental Health, 8, 144162. http://doi.org/10.1007/s12310-015-9166-8Google Scholar
Cheney, C. O., & Sampson, K. (1990). Issues in identification and service delivery for student with conduct disorder: The “Nevada solution.Behavior Disorders, 15, 174179. https://doi.org/10.1177/019874299001500302Google Scholar
Dadds, M. R., Cauchi, A. J., Wimalaweera, S., Hawes, D. J., & Brennan, J. (2012). Outcomes, moderators, and mediators of empathic-emotion recognition training for complex conduct problems in childhood. Psychiatry Research, 199, 201207. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2012.04.033Google Scholar
Dawel, A., O’Kearney, R., McKone, E., Palermo, R. (2012). Not just fear and sadness: Meta-analytic evidence of pervasive emotion recognition deficits for facial and vocal expressions in psychopathy. Neuroscience Biobehavioral Review, 36, 22882304. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2012.08.006Google Scholar
Dishion, T. J., & Tipsord, J. M. (2011). Peer contagion in child and adolescent social and emotional development. Annual Review of Psychology, 62 ¸189214. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.093008.100412Google Scholar
Education for all Handicapped Children Act of 1975. Pub L. 94–142 (20 U.S.C. and 34 C.F.R.).Google Scholar
Essau, C. A., Sasagawa, S., & Frick, P. J. (2006). Callous-unemotional traits in a community sample of adolescents. Assessment, 13, 454469. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191106287354Google Scholar
Every Student Succeeds Act of 2015, Pub. L. No. 114–95 § 114 Stat. 1177 (2015–2016).Google Scholar
Fabelo, T., Thompson, M. D., Plotkin, M., Carmichael, D., Marchbanks, M. P., & Booth, E. A. (2011). Breaking school rules: A statewide study of how school discipline relates to students’ success and juvenile justice involvement. Council of State Governments Justice Center. Retrieved from http://csgjusticecenter.org/youth/breaking-schools-rules-report/Google Scholar
Farn, A., & Adams, J. (2016). Education and interagency collaboration: A lifeline for justice involved youth. Washington, DC: Center for Juvenile Justice Reform, Georgetown University McCourt School of Public Policy. Retrieved from https://cjjr.georgetown.edu/wp-content/uploads/2016/08/Lifeline-for-Justice-Involved-Youth-August_2016.pdfGoogle Scholar
Felitti, V. J., Anda, R. F., Nordenberg, D., et al. (1998). Relationship of childhood abuse and household dysfunction to many of the leading causes of deaths in adults. The Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACE) Study. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 14, 245258. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0749-3797(98)00017-8Google Scholar
Finger, E. C., Marsh, A. A., Mitchell, D. G., et al. (2008). Abnormal ventromedial prefrontal cortex function in children with psychopathic traits during reversal learning. Archives of General Psychiatry, 65, 586594. http://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.65.5.586Google Scholar
Forness, S. R., & Knitzer, J. (1992). A new proposed definition and terminology to replace “serious emotional disturbance” in Individuals with Disabilities Education Act. School Psychology Review, 21, 1220. DOI:10.1080/02796015.1992.12085587Google Scholar
Frick, P. J. (1998). Conduct disorders and severe antisocial behavior. New York, NY: Plenum.Google Scholar
Frick, P. J., Ray, J. V., Thornton, L. C., & Kahn, R. E. (2014). Can callous-unemotional traits enhance the understanding and treatment of serious conduct problems in children and adolescents: A comprehensive review. Psychological Bulletin, 140, 157. http://doi.org/10.1037/a0033076CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Haas, S. A., & Fosse, N. E. (2008). Health and the educational attainment of adolescents: Evidence from the NLSY97. Journal of Health & Social Behavior, 49, 178192. http://doi.org/10.1177/002214650804900205Google Scholar
Hektner, J. M., August, G. J., Bloomquist, M. L., Lee, S., & Klimes-Dougan, B. (2014). A 10-year randomized controlled trial of the Early Risers conduct problems preventive intervention: Effects on externalizing and internalizing in late high school. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 82, 355360. http://doi.org/10.1037/a0035678Google Scholar
Holmes, S. E., Slaughter, J. R., & Kashani, J. (2001). Risk factors in childhood that lead to the development of conduct disorder and antisocial personality disorder. Child Psychiatry of Human Development, 3, 183193. http://doi.org/10.1023/A:1026425304480CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act, 20 U.S.C. § 1400. (2004).Google Scholar
Jones, A. P., Laurens, K. R., Herba, C. M., Barker, G. J., & Viding, E. (2009). Amygdala hypoactivity to fearful faces in boys with conduct problems and callous-unemotional traits. American Journal of Psychiatry, 166, 95102. http://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2008.07071050Google Scholar
Justicia, F., Benitez, J. L., Pichardo, M. C., et al. (2006). Towards a new explicative model of antisocial behavior. Electric Journal of Research in Educational Psychology, 4, 131150. http://doi.org/10.1177/0143034310396804Google Scholar
Kauffman, J. M., Mock, D. R., & Simpson, R. L. (2007). Problems related to underservice of students with emotional or behavioral disorders. Behavioral Disorders, 33, 4357. https://doi.org/10.1177/019874290703300104Google Scholar
Kerker, B. D., Zhang, J., Nadeem, E., et al. (2015). Adverse childhood experiences and mental health, chronic medical conditions, and development in young children. Academic Pediatrics, 15, 510517. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.acap.2015.05.005Google Scholar
Kimonis, E. R., Frick, P. J., Cauffman, E., Goldweber, A., & Skeem, J. (2012). Primary and secondary variants of juvenile psychopathy differ in emotional processing. Development and Psychopathology, 24, 10911103. http://doi.org/10.1017/s0954579412000557Google Scholar
Kimonis, E. R., Ogg, J., & Fefer, S. (2014). The relevance of callous-unemotional traits to working with youth with conduct problems. Communique, 42, 1618.Google Scholar
Krezmien, M.P., Leone, P.E., & Wilson, M.G. (2014). Marginalized students, school exclusion and the school-to-prison pipeline. In Church, W. T., Springer, D., & Roberts, A. R. (Eds.), Juvenile Justice Sourcebook (2nd ed.) (pp. 267287). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Ky. Admin. Regs. 1: 002. (2011).Google Scholar
Lee, Z., Klaver, J. R., Hart, S. D., Moretti, M. M., & Douglas, K. S. (2009). Short-term stability of psychopathic traits in adolescent offenders. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 38, 595605. http://doi.org/10.1080/15374410903103536Google Scholar
Leone, P., & Weinberg, L. (2012). Addressing the unmet educational needs of children and youth in the juvenile justice and child welfare systems. Washington, DC: Center for Juvenile Justice Reform, Georgetown Public Policy Institute. Retrieved from https://cjjr.georgetown.edu/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/EducationalNeedsofChildrenandYouth_May2010.pdfGoogle Scholar
Lozier, L. M., Cardinale, E. M., VanMeter, J. W., & Marsh, A. A. (2014). Mediation of the relationship between callous-unemotional traits and proactive aggression by amygdala response to fear among children with conduct problems. JAMA Psychiatry, 71, 627636. http://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2013.4540Google Scholar
Maes, H. H., Silberg, J. L., Neal, M. C., & Eaves, L. J. (2007). Genetic and cultural transmission of antisocial behavior: An extended twin parent model. Twin Research and Human Genetics, 10, 136150. http://doi.org/10.1375/twin.10.1.136Google Scholar
Marsh, A. A., Finger, E. C., Mitchell, D. G. V., et al. (2008). Reduced amygdala response to fearful expressions in children and adolescents with callous-unemotional traits and disruptive behavior disorders. American Journal of Psychiatry, 165, 712720. http://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2007.07071145Google Scholar
Mason, C. (2016). The social maladjustment exclusion: Leaving a category of students behind and the problem with state and judicial interpretation of congressional intent, 19 UDC/DCSL L. Rev. 91. Journal of Law and Education, 47, 580598.Google Scholar
Mental Health America. (2018). Mental Health in America – Access to care data. Retrieved from www.mentalhealthamerica.net/issues/mental-health-america-access-care-dataGoogle Scholar
Merikangas, K. R., He, J. P., Burstein, M., et al. (2010). Lifetime prevalence of mental disorders in US adolescents: Results from the National Comorbidity Survey Replication – Adolescent Supplement (NCS-A). Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 49, 980989. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2010.05.017Google Scholar
Merrell, K. W., & Walker, H. M. (2004). Deconstructing a definition: Social maladjustment versus emotional disturbance and moving the EBD field forward. Psychology in the Schools, 41, 899910. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.20046CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Morgan, E., Salomon, N., Plotkin, M., & Cohen, R. (2014). The school discipline consensus report: Strategies from the field to keep students engaged in school and out of the juvenile justice system. New York, NY: The Council of State Governments Justice Center. Retrieved from http://csgjusticecenter.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/06/The_School_Discipline_Consensus_Report.pdfGoogle Scholar
National Association of School Psychologists. (2015). Early childhood services: Promoting positive outcomes for young children. [Position statement]. Bethesda, MD: Author. Retrieved from www.nasponline.org/x32403.xmlGoogle Scholar
National Center for Mental Health and Juvenile Justice. (2014). Better solutions for youth with mental health needs in the juvenile justice system. Resource Center Partnership. Retrieved from www.ncmhjj.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/01/Whitepaper-Mental-Health-FINAL.pdfGoogle Scholar
National Research Council and Institute of Medicine. (2009a) Adolescent health services: Missing opportunities. Washington DC: National Academies Press.Google Scholar
National Research Council and Institute of Medicine. (2009b). Preventing mental, emotional, and behavioral disorders among young people: Progress and possibilities. Washington, DC: National Academies Press.Google Scholar
Orpinas, P., & Home, A. M. (2009). A teacher-focused approach to prevent and reduce students’ aggressive behavior: The GREAT teacher program. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 26, 2938. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2003.09.016Google Scholar
Pardini, D. A., Lochman, J. E., & Frick, P. J. (2003). Callous-unemotional traits and social-cognitive processes in adjudicated youths. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 42, 364371. http://doi.org/10.1097/00004583-200303000-00018Google Scholar
Quinn, M., Rutherford, R., Leone, P., Osher, D., & Poirier, J. (2005). Youth with disabilities in juvenile corrections: A national survey. Exceptional Children 71, 339345. http://doi.org/10.1177/001440290507100308Google Scholar
Raines, T. C., Dever, B. V., Kamphaus, R. W., & Roach, A. T. (2012). Universal screening for behavioral and emotional risk: A promising method for reducing disproportionate placement in special education. The Journal of Negro Education, 81, 283296. https://doi.org/10.7709/jnegroeducation.81.3.0283Google Scholar
Reynolds, C. R., & Kamphaus, R. W. (2015). Behavior assessment system for children (3rd ed.). Bloomington: NCS Pearson, Inc.Google Scholar
Sebastian, C. L., McCrory, E. J. P., Cecil, C. A. M., et al. (2012). Neural responses to affective and cognitive theory of mind in children with conduct problems and varying levels of callous-unemotional traits. Archives of General Psychiatry, 69, 814822. https://doi.org/10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2011.2070Google Scholar
Skiba, R., & Grizzle, K. (1991). The social maladjustment exclusion: Issues of definition and assessment. School Psychology Review 20, 580598.Google Scholar
Skiba, R. J., Horner, R. H., Chung, C. G., et al. (2011). Race is not neutral: A national investigation of African American and Latino disproportionality in school discipline. School Psychology Review, 40, 85107.Google Scholar
Strain, P. S., & Joseph, G. E. (2004). Engaged supervision to support recommended practices for young children with challenging behavior. Early Childhood Special Education, 24, 3950. http://doi.org/10.1177/02711214040240010401Google Scholar
Sullivan, A. L., & Sadeh, S. S. (2014). Differentiating social maladjustment from emotional disturbance: An analysis of case law. School Psychology Review, 43, 450471. http://doi.org/10.17105/SPR-13-0038.1Google Scholar
Torres, T., & Barber, C. R. (2017). The social conundrum: Emotional disturbance v social maladjustment. Case Studies in Special Education: A Social Justice Perspective, 1, 5770.Google Scholar
Twenge, J., Joiner, T., Duffy, M., Cooper, B., & Binau, S. (2019). Age, period, and cohort trends in mood disorder and suicide-related outcomes in a nationally representative data set, 2005–2017. Journal of Abnormal Psychology. Advance online publication. http://doi.org/10.1037/abn0000410Google Scholar
US Department of Education. (2014). Guiding principles: A resource guide for improving school climate and discipline. Washington, DC: Author.Google Scholar
US Department of Education, Office of Special Education and Rehabilitative Services. (2016, August). Dear colleague letter. Retrieved from https://sites.ed.gov/idea/idea-files/osep-dear-colleague-letter-on-ensuring-equity-and-providing-behavioral-supports-to-students-with-disabilities/Google Scholar
Veldman, K., Bültmann, U., Almansa, J., & Reijneveld, S. A. (2015). Childhood adversities and educational attainment in young adulthood: The role of mental health problems in adolescence. Journal of Adolescent Health, 57, 462467. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2015.08.004Google Scholar
Verdugo, R. R. (2002). Race-ethnicity, social class, and zero-tolerance policies: The cultural and structural wars. Education and Urban Society, 35, 5075. https://doi.org/10.1177/001312402237214Google Scholar
Weiss, B., Han, S., Harris, V., et al. (2013). An independent randomized clinical trial of multisystemic therapy with non-court-referred adolescents with serious conduct problems. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 81, 10271039. http://doi.org/10.1037/a0033928Google Scholar
Wells, G. (2017). The social conundrum: Emotional disturbance v social maladjustment. In Torres, T. & Barber, C. (Eds.), Case studies in special education: A social justice perspective. (pp. 5770). Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas.Google Scholar
White, S. F., Marsh, A. A., Fowler, K. A., et al. (2012). Reduced amygdala responding in youth with disruptive behavior disorder and psychopathic traits reflects a reduced emotional response not increased top- down attention to non-emotional features. American Journal of Psychiatry, 169, 750758. http://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2012.11081270Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure coreplatform@cambridge.org is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×