Finds of Roman weaponry and horse gear in rural and especially urban settlements have long been associated with the presence of military guard posts or fortifications. In recent years, however, objects of a military nature have been found in these and other non-military contexts in large numbers, thus opening the way for alternative interpretations. The Roman Military Equipment Conference in Windisch- Vindonissa (2001) was entirely taken up with the subject of Roman soldiers and militaria in the civilian domain. The conference proceedings present an interesting picture of the current state of research. What stands out is the focus on finds from urban centres, with finds from other non-military contexts generally not taken into consideration. Moreover, interpretation tends to confine itself to listing possible explanations, rather than further analysing finds at a site or regional level. The present study seeks to fill this gap by examining the weaponry and horse gear from the eastern Rhine delta – the territory of the Batavians – for the entire Roman period. Underpinning the research is an extensive inventory of about 2,700 ‘military’ items from urban centres, as well as rural settlements, cult places, rivers and graves.

BACKGROUND, OBJECTIVES AND DELEVOPMENT OF THE RESEARCH

Since the late 1990s, the annual Roman Military Equipment Conference has sparked a growing interest in the study of such equipment. This particular branch of research has long been part of a broader field of study that could be called ‘Roman military studies’. In a recent article, James sketches the development of this research tradition in recent decades. His main conclusion is that Roman military studies, already increasingly isolated within current Roman archaeology, risks further erosion of its long-held pre-eminent position unless drastic changes are made. This situation has developed for the following reasons:

• 1. Military archaeologists have remained quite aloof from the theoretical debate. Their research has built on subjects with a traditional focus: the structure of the Roman army, career paths for officers and the military infrastructure of the frontier provinces.