School-based group treatment for adolescent substance abuse

Eric F. Wagner; Mark J. Macgowan

doi:10.1017/CBO9780511543968.017

16 - School-based group treatment for adolescent substance abuse

from Part IV - Empirically based interventions for adolescent substance abuse: research and practical implications

Published online by Cambridge University Press: 26 August 2009

Eric F. Wagner and

Mark J. Macgowan

Edited by

Howard A. Liddle and

Cynthia L. Rowe

Show author details

Eric F. Wagner: Affiliation:
Florida International University, Miami, FL, USA
Mark J. Macgowan: Affiliation:
Florida International University, Miami, FL, USA
Howard A. Liddle: Affiliation:
University of Miami School of Medicine
Cynthia L. Rowe: Affiliation:
University of Miami School of Medicine

Book contents

Get access

Summary

The extant empirical literature indicates that treatment for adolescent alcohol and other drug (AOD) abuse (a) can succeed for adolescents with AOD use problems, (b) produces treatment outcomes comparable to those found among adults with AOD use problems, (c) yields varied improvement across different domains of functioning (e.g., school performance, emotional distress, family relations), and (d) does not differ substantially among treatments in the probability of success, with the possible exception of outpatient family therapy, which might lead to better outcomes in outpatient populations (Brown et al., 1996; Catalano et al., 1990–1991; Wagner, Myers, & Mclninch, 1999a; Williams et al., 2000). The literature also indicates that half of teenagers treated for substance use problems will relapse within 3 months of the completion of treatment, and two-thirds will relapse within 6 months (Brown, Mott, & Myers, 1990; Brown, Vik, & Creamer, 1989). Therefore, treatment can be effective for teenagers with AOD use problems, but relapse rates remain high, with most treated adolescents returning to substance use between 3 and 6 months after the completion of treatment.

While there is empirical support for the effectiveness of several adolescent AOD abuse treatments, many studies document the high level of unmet needs among substance abusers. Recent estimates suggest that only one out of every ten adolescents with a substance use problem receives treatment (Clark et al., 2002; Dennis et al., 2003).

Type: Chapter
Information: Adolescent Substance Abuse
Research and Clinical Advances
, pp. 333 - 356

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511543968.017 [Opens in a new window]

Publisher: Cambridge University Press

Print publication year: 2006

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Aguirre-Molina, M. & Caetano, R. (1994). Alcohol use and alcohol-related issues. In Molina, C. W. & Aguirre-Molina, M. (eds.), Latino Health in the US: A Growing Challenge (pp. 393–424). Washington, DC: American Public Health Association.

American Psychiatric Association (1994). The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual, 4th edn (DSM-IV). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.

Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Bloch, S. & Crouch, E. (1985). Therapeutic Factors in Group Psychotherapy. New York: Oxford University Press.

Budman, S. H., Simeone, P. G., Reilly, R., & Demby, A. (1994). Progress in short-term and time-limited group psychotherapy: evidence and implications. In Fuhriman, A. & Burlingame, G. M. (eds.), Handbook of Group Psychotherapy: An Empirical and Clinical Synthesis (pp. 319–339). New York: John Wiley.

Bentler, P. M. (1992). Etiologies and consequences of adolescent drug use: implications for prevention. Journal of Addictive Diseases, 11, 47–61.Google Scholar

Brown, S. A. (2001). Facilitating change for adolescent alcohol problems: a multiple options approach. In Wagner, E. F & Waldron, H. B. (eds.), Innovations in Adolescent Substance Abuse Intervention (pp. 169–188). Oxford: Elsevier Science (pp.169–188).

Brown, S. A., Cleghorn, A., Schuckit, M. A., Myers, M. G., & Mott, M. A. (1996). Conduct disorder among adolescent alcohol and drug misusers. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 57, 314–324.Google Scholar

Brown, S. B., Vik, P. W., & Creamer, V. A. (1989). Characteristics of relapse following adolescent substance treatment. Addictive Behaviors, 14, 291–300.Google Scholar

Brown, S. B., Mott, M. A., & Myers, M. G. (1990). Adolescent alcohol and drug treatment outcome. In Watson, R. R. (ed.), Drug and Alcohol Abuse Prevention (pp. 373–403). Totowa, NJ: Humana.

Bruvold, W. H. (1993). A meta-analysis of adolescent smoking prevention programs. American Journal of Public Health, 83, 872–880.Google Scholar

Bryk, A. S. & Raudenbush, S. W. (1987). Application of hierarchical linear models to assessing change. Psychological Bulletin, 101, 147–158.Google Scholar

Campbell, L. & Page, R. (1993). The therapeutic effects of group process on the behavioral patterns of a drug-addicted group. Journal of Addictions and Offender Counseling, 13, 34–45.Google Scholar

Carlson, K. A., Hughes, J. D., Lachapelle, J. K., Holayter, M. C., & Deebach, F. M. (1994). Student assistance programs: do they make a difference?Journal of Child and Adolescent Substance Abuse, 4, 1–16.Google Scholar

Carlson, K. A., Hughes, J. D., & Deebach, F. M. (1996). Proof positive: a student assistance program evaluation. Student Assistance Journal, 8, 14–18.Google Scholar

Catalano, R. F., Hawkins, J. D., Wells, E. A., Miller, J., & Brewer, D. (1990–1991). Evaluation of the effectiveness of adolescent drug abuse treatment, assessment of risks for relapse, and promising approaches for relapse prevention. International Journal of the Addictions, 25, 1085–1140.Google Scholar

Catterall, J. S. (1987). An intensive group counseling drop-out prevention intervention: some cautions on isolating at-risk adolescents within high schools. American Education Research Journal, 24, 521–540.Google Scholar

CDC (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention) (1994). Guidelines for school health programs to prevent tobacco use and addiction. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 43, 1–18.

CDC (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention)(1999). Compendium of HIV Prevention Interventions with Evidence of Effectiveness. Atlanta, GA: CDC HIV/AIDS Prevention Research.

Cicchetti, D. & Toth, S. L. (1992). The role of developmental theory in prevention and intervention. Development and Psychopathology, 4, 489–493.Google Scholar

Cierpialkowska, L. (1994). Therapeutic factors in AA and Al-Anon groups. Polish Psychological Bulletin, 25, 59–73.Google Scholar

Clark, H. W., Horton, A. M., Dennis, M., & Babor, T. F. (2002). Moving from research to practice just in time: the treatment of cannabis use disorders comes of age. Addiction, 97 (Suppl. 1), 1–3.Google Scholar

Cowen, E. L. (1977). Baby-steps toward primary prevention. American Journal of Community Psychology, 5, 1–22.Google Scholar

Cowen, E. L., Spinell, A., Wright, S., & Weissberg, R. P. (1983). Continuing dissemination of a school-based mental health program. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 14, 118–127.Google Scholar

Cuijpers, P. (2002). Effective ingredients of school-based drug prevention programs. Addictive Behaviors, 27, 1009–1023.Google Scholar

Dennis, M. L. & White, M. K. (2002). The effectiveness of adolescent substance abuse treatment: a brief summary of studies through 2001. Bloomington, IL: Chestnut Health Systems. Available at http://www.drugstrategies.org.

Dennis, M. L., Dawud-Noursi, S., Muck, R., & McDermeit, M. (2003). The need for developing and evaluating adolescent treatment models. In Stevens, S. J. & Morral, A. R. (eds.), Adolescent Substance Abuse Treatment in the United States: Exemplary Models from a National Evaluation Study (pp. 3–34). Binghamton, NY: Haworth Press.

DiRenzio, P. M. (1990). A success story: SAP development in Pennsylvania. Student Assistance Journal, 2, 25–29.Google Scholar

Dishion, T. J., McCord, J., & Poulin, F. (1999). When interventions harm: peer groups and problem behavior. American Psychologist, 54, 755–764.Google Scholar

Dishion, T. J., Poulin, F., & Burraston, B. (2001). Peer group dynamics associated with iatrogenic effects in group interventions with high-risk young adolescents. New directions for Child and Adolescent Development, 91, 79–92.Google Scholar

Duehn, W. D. (1978). Covert sensitization in group treatment of adolescent drug abusers. International Journal of the Addictions, 13, 485–491.Google Scholar

Durlak, J. A. (1997). Successful Prevention Programs for Children and Adolescents. New York: Plenum Press.

Eddy, J. M., Dishion, T. J., & Stoolmiller, M. (1998). The analysis of intervention change in children and families: methodological and conceptual issues embedded in intervention studies. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 26, 53–69.Google Scholar

Feldman, R. A. & Caplinger, T. E. (1977). Social work experience and client behavioral change: multivariate analysis of process and outcome. Journal of Social Service Research, 1, 5–33.Google Scholar

Feldman, R. A., Caplinger, T. E., & Wodarski, J. S. (1983). The St. Louis Conundrum: The Effective Treatment of Antisocial Youths. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Foote, A. E. & Erfurt, J. C. (1991). Effects of EAP follow up on prevention of relapse among substance abuse clients. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 52, 241–782.Google Scholar

Forman, S. G. & Linney, J. A. (1988). School-based prevention of adolescent substance abuse: programs, implementation, and future directions. School Psychology Review, 17, 550–558.Google Scholar

Fors, S. W. & Jarvis, S. (1995). Evaluation of a peer-led drug abuse risk reduction project for runaway/homeless youths. Journal of Drug Education, 25, 321–333.Google Scholar

Galinsky, M. J. & Schopler, J. H. (1977). Warning: groups may be dangerous. Social Work, 22, 89–94.Google Scholar

Getter, H., Litt, M. D., Kadden, R. M., & Cooney, N. L. (1992). Measuring treatment process in coping skills and interactional group therapies for alcoholism. International Journal of Group Psychotherapy, 42, 419–430.Google Scholar

Giachello, A. L. M. (1994). Issues of access and use. In Molina, C. W. & Aguirre-Molina, M. (eds.), Latino Health in the US: A Growing Challenge (pp. 83–111). Washington, DC: American Public Health Association.

Gillaspy, J. A., Wright, A. R., Campbell, C., Stokes, S., & Adinoff, B. (2002). Group alliance and cohesion as predictors of drug and alcohol abuse treatment outcomes. Psychotherapy Research, 12, 213–229.Google Scholar

Gingiss, P., Gottlieb, N. H., & Brink, S. G. (1994). Increasing teacher receptivity toward use of tobacco prevention education programs. Journal of Drug Education, 24, 163–176.Google Scholar

Glynn, T. J. (1989). Essential elements of school-based smoking prevention programs. Journal of School Health, 59, 181–188.Google Scholar

Greene, L. R. (2000). Process analysis of group interaction in therapeutic groups. In Beck, A. P. & Lewis, C. M. (eds.), The Process of Group Psychotherapy: Systems for Analyzing Change. (pp. 23–47). Washington, DC: American Psychological Press.

Handwerk, M. L., Field, C. E., & Friman, P. C. (2000). The iatrogenic effects of group intervention for antisocial youth: premature extrapolations?Journal of Behavioral Education, 10, 223–238.Google Scholar

Hansen, W. B. (1992). School-based substance abuse prevention: a review of the state of the art in curriculum, 1980–1990. Health Education Research, 7, 403–430.Google Scholar

Harrison, P. A., Fulkerson, J. A., & Beebe, T. J. (1998). DSM-IV substance use disorder criteria for adolescents: a critical examination based on a statewide school survey. American Journal of Psychiatry, 155, 486–492.Google Scholar

Hoag, M. J. & Burlingame, G. M. (1997). Evaluating the effectiveness of child and adolescent group treatment: a meta-analytic review. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 26, 234–246.Google Scholar

Jessor, R. J. & Jessor, S. L. (1977). A final perspective. In Jessor, R. J., (ed.), Problem Behavior and Psychosocial Development: A Longitudinal Study of Youth (pp. 231–253). New York: Academic Press.

Johnston, L. D., O'Malley, P. M., & Bachman, J. G. (2002). Ecstasy use among American teens drops for the first time in recent years, and overall drug and alcohol use also decline in the year after 9/11. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan News and Information Services National Press Release.

Kaminer, Y. & Burleson, J. A. (1999). Psychotherapies for adolescent substance abusers: 15-month follow-up of a pilot study. American Journal on Addictions, 8, 114–119.Google Scholar

Kaminer, Y., Burleson, J. A., Blitz, C., Sussman, J., & Rounsaville, B. J. (1998a). Psychotherapies for adolescent substance abusers: a pilot study. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 186, 684–690.Google Scholar

Kaminer, Y., Blitz, C., Burleson, J. A., Kadden, R. M., & Rounsaville, B. J. (1998b). Measuring treatment process in cognitive–behavioral and interactional group therapies for adolescent substance abusers. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 186, 407–413.Google Scholar

Kazdin, A. E. (1995). Scope of child and adolescent psychotherapy research: limited sampling of dysfunctions, treatments, and client characteristics. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 24, 125–140.Google Scholar

Khantzian, E. J. (2001). Reflections on group treatments as corrective experiences for addictive vulnerability. International Journal of Group Psychotherapy, 51, 11–20.Google Scholar

Kirby, D. (1997). No Easy Answers: Research Findings on Programs to Reduce Teen Pregnancy. Washington, DC: National Campaign to Prevent Teen Pregnancy.

Kivilighan, D. M. & Tarrant, J. M. (2001). Does group climate mediate the group leadership–group member outcome relationship: a test of Yalom's hypotheses about leadership priorities. Group Dynamics, 5, 220–234.Google Scholar

Lewin, K., Lippitt, R., & White, R. K. (1939). Patterns of aggressive behavior in experimentally created “social climates”. Journal of Social Psychology, 10, 271–299.Google Scholar

Lewinsohn, P. M., Hops, H., Roberts, R. E., Seeley, J. R., & Andrews, J. A. (1993). Adolescent psychopathology: I. Prevalence and incidence of depression and other DSM-III-R disorders in high school students. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 102, 133–144.Google Scholar

Liddle, H. A., Dakof, G. A., Parker, K., et al. (2001). Multidimensional family therapy for adolescent drug abuse: results of a randomized clinical trial. American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse, 27, 651–688.Google Scholar

Lieberman, M. A., Yalom, I. D., & Miles, M. B. (1973). Encounter Groups: First Facts. New York: Basic Books.

Lipsey, M. W. & Cordray, D. S. (2000). Evaluation methods for social intervention. Annual Review of Psychology, 51, 345–375.Google Scholar

Macgowan, M. J. (1997). A measure of engagement for social group work: the groupwork engagement measure (GEM). Journal of Social Service Research, 23, 17–37.Google Scholar

Macgowan, M. J.(2000). Evaluation of a measure of engagement for group work. Research on Social Work Practice, 10, 348–361.Google Scholar

Macgowan, M. J. & Levenson, J. S. (2003). Psychometrics of the group engagement measure with male sex offenders. Small Group Research, 34, 155–169.Google Scholar

Matano, R. A. & Yalom, I. D. (1991). Approaches to chemical dependency: chemical dependency and interactive group therapy – a synthesis. International Journal of Group Psychotherapy, 41, 269–293.Google Scholar

McCluskey, C. P., Krohn, M. D., Lizotte, A. J., & Rodriguez, M. L. (2002). Early substance use and school achievement: an examination of Latino, White, and African-American youth. Journal of Drug Issues, 32, 921–943.Google Scholar

Milgram, G. G. (1989). Impact of a student assistance program. Journal of Drug Education, 19(4), 327–335.Google Scholar

Miller, W. R. & Rollnick, S. (eds.), (1991). Motivational interviewing: Preparing people to change addictive behavior. New York: Guilford Press.

Morehouse, E. R. (1984). A study of Westchester County's Student Assistance Program participants' alcohol and drug abuse prior to and after counseling during the school year 1982–1983 (Tech. Rep. No. MHa s65 15–1). White Plains, NY: Westchester County Department of Community Mental Health.

Neighbors, H. W. (1985). Seeking professional help for personal problems: Black americans' use of health and mental health services. Community Mental Health Journal, 21(3), 156–166.Google Scholar

Newman, L., Henry, P. B., DiRenzio, P., & Stecher, T. (1988–1989). Intervention and student assistance: the Pennsylvania model. Journal of Chemical Dependency Treatment, 2, 145–162.Google Scholar

O'Leary, T. A., Brown, S. A., Colby, S. M., et al. (2002). Treating adolescents together or individually? Issues in adolescent substance abuse interventions. Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research, 26, 890–899.Google Scholar

Page, R. C., Davis, K. C., Berkow, D. N., & O'Leary, E. (1989). Analysis of group process in marathon group therapy with users of illicit drugs. Small Group Behavior, 20, 220–227.Google Scholar

Palmer, J. H. P. & Paisley, P. O. (1991). Student assistance programs: a response to substance abuse. School Counselor, 38, 287–293.Google Scholar

Pandina, R. J. & Schuele, J. A. (1983). Psychosocial correlates of alcohol and drug use of adolescent students and adolescents in treatment. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 44, 950–973.Google Scholar

Perhats, C., Oh, K., Levy, S. R., Flay, B. R., & McFall, S. (1996). Role differences in gatekeeper perceptions of school-based drug and sexuality education programs: a cross-sectional survey. Health Education Research, 11, 11–27.Google Scholar

Poulin, F., Dishion, T. J., & Burraston, B. (2001). Three-year iatrogenic effects associated with aggregating high-risk adolescents in cognitive–behavioral preventive interventions. Applied Developmental Science, 5, 214–224.Google Scholar

Prout, H. T. & DeMartino, R. A. (1986). A meta-analysis of school-based studies of psychotherapy. Journal of School Psychology, 24, 285–292.Google Scholar

Rohrbach, L. A., D'Onofrio, C. N., Backer, T. E., & Montgomery, S. B. (1996). Diffusion of school-based substance abuse prevention programs. American Behavioral Scientist, 39, 919–934.Google Scholar

Romig, D. A. (1978). Justice for our Children: An Examination of Juvenile Delinquent Rehabilitation Programs. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books.

Rose, S., Tolman, R., & Tallant, S. (1985). Group process in cognitive behavioral therapy. Behavior Therapist, 8, 71–75.Google Scholar

St. Pierre, T. L. (2001). Strategies for community/school collaborations to prevent youth substance abuse. Journal of Primary Prevention, 21, 381–398.Google Scholar

Sandahl, C., Lindgren, A., & Herlitz, K. (2000). Does the group conductor make a difference? Communication patterns in group-analytically and cognitive–behaviourally oriented therapy groups. Group Analysis, 33, 333–351.Google Scholar

Shechtman, Z. & Ben-David, M. (1999). Individual and group psychotherapy of childhood aggression: a comparison of outcomes and processes. Group Dynamics, 3, 263–274.Google Scholar

Shechtman, Z., Bar-El, O., & Hadar, E. (1997). Therapeutic factors in counseling and psychoeducational groups for adolescents: a comparison. Journal for Specialists in Group Work, 22, 203–214.Google Scholar

Shedler, J. B. & Block, J. (1990). Adolescent drug use and psychological health. American Psychologist, 45, 612–630.Google Scholar

Simmering, K. F. (1991). A team approach to drug-free schools: the Iowa connection. Student Assistance Journal, 3, 26–31.Google Scholar

Sobell, L. C. & Sobell, M. B. (1992). Timeline follow-back: a technique for assessing self-reported alcohol consumption. In Litten, R. Z. & Allen, J. P (eds.), Measuring Alcohol Consumption: Psychosocial and Biochemical Methods (pp. 41–72). Clifton, NJ: Humana Press.

Sobell, M. B. & Sobell, L. C. (1993). Problem Drinkers: Guided Self-change Treatment. New York: Guilford Press.

Stiles, W. B., Startup, M., Hardy, G. E., et al. (1996). Therapist session intentions in cognitive–behavioral and psychodynamic-interpersonal psychotherapy. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 43, 402–414.Google Scholar

Stinchfield, R., Owen, P. L., & Winters, K. C. (1994). Group therapy for substance abuse: a review of the empirical literature. In Fuhriman, A. & Burlingame, G. M. (eds.), Handbook of Group Psychotherapy: An Empirical and Clinical Synthesis (pp. 458–488). New York: John Wiley.

Tarter, R. & Hegedus, A. M. (1991). The Drug Use Screening Inventory: its application in the evaluation and treatment of alcohol and drug abuse. Alcohol Health Research World, 15, 65–75.Google Scholar

Tillitski, C. J. (1990). A meta-analysis of estimated effect sizes for group versus individual versus control treatments. International Journal of Group Psychotherapy, 40, 215–224.Google Scholar

Tobler, N. & Stratton, H. (1997). Effectiveness of school-based drug prevention programs: a meta-analysis of the research. Journal of Primary Prevention, 18, 71–128.Google Scholar

Tobler, N. S., Lessard, T., Marshall, D., Ochshorn, P., & Roona, M. (1999). Effectiveness of school-based drug prevention programs for marijuana use. School Psychology International, 20, 105–137.Google Scholar

Tobler, N. S., Roona, M. R., Ochshorn, P., et al. (2000). School-based adolescent drug prevention programs: 1998 meta-analysis. Journal of Primary Preventions, 20, 275–337.Google Scholar

Wagner, E. F. (2003). Conceptualizing alcohol treatment research for Hispanic/Latino adolescents. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 27, 1349–1352.Google Scholar

Wagner, E. F. & Kassel, J. D. (1995). Substance use and abuse. In Ammerman, R. T. & Hersen, M. (eds.), Handbook of Child Behavior Therapy in the Psychiatric Setting (pp. 367–388). New York: John Wiley.

Wagner, E. F., Myers, M. G., & McIninch, J. L. (1999a). Stress-coping and temptation coping as predictors of adolescent substance use. Addictive Behaviors, 24, 769–779.Google Scholar

Wagner, E. F., Brown, S. A., Monti, P. M., Myers, H. G., & Waldron, H. B. (1999b). Innovations in adolescent substance abuse intervention. Alcoholism: Clinical And Experimental Research, 23, 236–249.Google Scholar

Wagner, E. F., Swensen, C. C., & Henggeler, S. W. (2000). Practical and methodological challenges in community-based interventions. Children's Services: Social Policy, Research, and Practice, 3, 211–231.Google Scholar

Wagner, E. F., Kortlander, S. E., & Leon Morris, S. (2001a). The Teen Intervention Project. In Wagner, E. F. & Waldron, H. B. (eds.), Innovations in Adolescent Substance Abuse Intervention, pp. 189–203. Oxford: Elsevier Science.

Waldron, H. B., Slesnick, N., Brody, J. L., Turner, C. W., & Peterson, T. R. (2001b). Treatment outcomes for adolescent substance abuse at 4- and 7-month assessments. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 69, 802–813.Google Scholar

Wagner, E. F., Tubman, J. G., &. Gil, A. G. (2004). Implementing school-based substance abuse interventions: methodological dilemmas and recommended solutions. Addiction, 99 (Suppl. 2), 106–119.Google Scholar

Walsh, D. A., Hingson, R. W., Merrigan, D. M., et al. (1991). A randomized trial of treatment options for alcohol-abusing workers. New England Journal of Medicine, 325, 775–782.Google Scholar

Williams, R. J., Chang, S. Y., for the Addiction Centre Adolescent Research Group. (2000). A comprehensive and comparative review of adolescent substance abuse treatment outcome. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 7, 138–166.Google Scholar

Wood, A., Trainor, G., Rothwell, J., Moore, A., & Harrington, R. (2001). Randomized trial of group therapy for repeated deliberate self-harm in adolescents. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 40, 1246–125.Google Scholar

Yalom, I. D. (1985). The Theory and Practice of Group Psychotherapy, 3rd edn. New York: Basic Books.

Yalom, I. D.(1995). The Theory and Practice of Group Psychotherapy, 4th edn. New York: Basic Books.

Book contents

16 - School-based group treatment for adolescent substance abuse

Summary

Access options

References

Save book to Kindle

Save book to Dropbox

Save book to Google Drive