Book contents
- Frontmatter
- Contents
- Preface
- 1 Introduction
- Part I The Earth System
- Part II Global Physical Climatology
- Part III Soil Processes
- Part IV Hydrometeorology
- Part V Biometeorology
- Part VI Terrestrial Plant Ecology
- Part VII Terrestrial Forcings and Feedbacks
- 25 Land surface processes in climate models
- 26 Seasonal-to-interannual variability
- 27 Land use and land-cover change
- 28 Coupled climate–vegetation dynamics
- 29 Carbon cycle–climate feedbacks
- 30 Urbanization
- Index
- Plate section
- References
This chapter is part of a book that is no longer available to purchase from Cambridge Core
28 - Coupled climate–vegetation dynamics
from Part VII - Terrestrial Forcings and Feedbacks
Book contents
- Frontmatter
- Contents
- Preface
- 1 Introduction
- Part I The Earth System
- Part II Global Physical Climatology
- Part III Soil Processes
- Part IV Hydrometeorology
- Part V Biometeorology
- Part VI Terrestrial Plant Ecology
- Part VII Terrestrial Forcings and Feedbacks
- 25 Land surface processes in climate models
- 26 Seasonal-to-interannual variability
- 27 Land use and land-cover change
- 28 Coupled climate–vegetation dynamics
- 29 Carbon cycle–climate feedbacks
- 30 Urbanization
- Index
- Plate section
- References
Summary
Chapter summary
This chapter examines the biogeophysical coupling between terrestrial vegetation and climate. “Daisyworld” is first introduced as a simple model of coupled climate–vegetation dynamics. The Daisyworld model illustrates the potential for regulation of climate by vegetation. More realistic examples of climate–vegetation interactions occur regionally in response to gradients in soil water or temperature. The gradient from tropical rainforest to tropical deciduous forest to savanna to desert represents increasing aridity. This gradient is not only a response to soil moisture but also feeds back to affect climate, especially precipitation. An example of this is in northern and western Africa, where climate model simulations demonstrate that the expansion of vegetation into desert in response to increased rainfall feeds back to increase rainfall. Another example is the boreal forest–tundra ecotone. The transition from forest to tundra is related to cold temperature. Numerous studies show that the northward migration of trees in response to climate warming feeds back to accentuate the warming; loss of tree cover with a cold climate reinforces cold temperatures. These studies indicate widespread changes in vegetation structure and biogeography in response to climate change are likely to themselves change climate. Biogeochemical feedbacks are considered in Chapter 29.
- Type
- Chapter
- Information
- Ecological ClimatologyConcepts and Applications, pp. 470 - 488Publisher: Cambridge University PressPrint publication year: 2008
References
, , , et al., 2006. Biogeophysical effects of CO2 fertilization on global climate. Tellus, 58B, 620–7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , , and , 2000. Climate and vegetation controls on boreal zone energy exchange. Global Change Biology, 6(s1), 69–83.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , and , 2005. “Wet/dry Daisyworld”: a conceptual tool for quantifying the spatial scaling of heterogeneous landscapes and its impact on the subgrid variability of energy fluxes. Tellus, 57B, 175–88.Google Scholar
, , , and , 2005. A global 0.05° maximum albedo dataset of snow-covered land based on MODIS observations. Geophysical Research Letters, 32, L17405, doi:10.1029/2005GL022881.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and , 1993. Stomatal density responses of Egyptian Olea europaea L. leaves to CO2 change since 1327 BC. Annals of Botany, 71, 431–5.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and , 2002. Reading a CO2 signal from fossil stomata. New Phytologist, 153, 387–97.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , and , 1998. Stomatal responses of the “living fossil” Ginkgo biloba L. to changes in atmospheric CO2 concentrations. Journal of Experimental Botany, 49, 1603–7.Google Scholar
, , , and , 2005. Surface energy exchanges along a tundra–forest transition and feedbacks to climate. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology, 131, 143–61.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and , 1997. Albedo over the boreal forest. Journal of Geophysical Research, 102D, 28 901–10.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , , and , 1997. Contrasting physiological and structural vegetation feedbacks in climate change simulations. Nature, 387, 796–9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , and , 2000. Simulated responses of potential vegetation to doubled-CO2 climate change and feedbacks on near-surface temperature. Global Ecology and Biogeography, 9, 171–80.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and , 1989. Environmental factors and ecological processes in boreal forests. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, 20, 1–28.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , and , 1992. Effects of boreal forest vegetation on global climate. Nature 359, 716–18.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , and , 1995. Boreal forest and tundra ecosystems as components of the climate system. Climatic Change, 29, 145–67.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , , and , 2001. Hot desert albedo and climate change: Mid-Holocene monsoon in North Africa. Journal of Climate, 14, 3724–37.2.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , , et al., 1999. Interactions between vegetation and climate: radiative and physiological effects of doubled atmospheric CO2. Journal of Climate, 12, 309–24.2.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , , and , 1999. Synergistic feedbacks from ocean and vegetation on the African monsoon response to mid-Holocene insolation. Geophysical Research Letters, 26, 2481–4.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , , and , 2000. Mid-Holocene and Last Glacial Maximum African monsoon changes as simulated within the Paleoclimate Modelling Intercomparison Project. Global and Planetary Change, 26, 51–66.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , , et al., 1998. Land surface feedbacks and palaeomonsoons in northern Africa. Geophysical Research Letters, 25, 3615–18.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , , et al., 2003. Stability analysis of the climate–vegetation system in the northern high latitudes. Climatic Change, 57, 119–38.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, 1966. Air masses, streamlines, and the boreal forest. Geographical Bulletin, 8, 228–69.Google Scholar
, , , et al., 2005. Transient simulation of the last glacial inception. Part II: Sensitivity and feedback analysis. Climate Dynamics, 24, 563–76.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , and , 2001. Climate sensitivity to wetlands and wetland vegetation in mid-Holocene North Africa. Climate Dynamics, 17, 151–7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and , 1994. The albedo of temperate and boreal forest and the Northern Hemisphere climate: a sensitivity experiment using the LMD GCM. Climate Dynamics, 10, 231–40.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , , et al., 2000. Arctic and boreal ecosystems of western North America as components of the climate system. Global Change Biology, 6(s1), 211–23.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , , et al., 2005. Role of land-surface changes in Arctic summer warming. Science, 310, 657–60.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, 1994. On coupling global biome models with climate models. Climate Research 4, 203–21.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, 1997. Modeling bio-geophysical feedback in the African and Indian monsoon region. Climate Dynamics, 13, 247–57.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, 1998. On multiple solutions of the atmosphere–vegetation system in present-day climate. Global Change Biology, 4, 549–59.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and , 1997. The greening of the Sahara during the mid-Holocene: results of an interactive atmosphere–biome model. Global Ecology and Biogeography Letters, 6, 369–77.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , , , and , 1998. Modelling global terrestrial vegetation–climate interaction. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, 353B, 53–63.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , , et al., 1999. Simulation of an abrupt change in Saharan vegetation in the mid-Holocene. Geophysical Research Letters, 26, 2037–40.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , , , and , 2003. Climate change in northern Africa: the past is not the future. Climatic Change, 57, 99–118.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , , and , 2006. Vegetation dynamics amplifies precessional forcing. Geophysical Research Letters, 33, L09709, doi:10.1029/2006GL026111.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and , 1997. Feedbacks between climate and surface water in northern Africa during the middle Holocene. Journal of Geophysical Research, 102D, 11 087–101.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and , 1997. Effect of vegetation on an ice-age climate model simulation. Journal of Geophysical Research, 102D, 16 463–80.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and , 2005. Impact of vegetation changes on the dynamics of the atmosphere at the Last Glacial Maximum. Climate Dynamics, 25, 447–59.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , , et al., 1996. Possible role of atmosphere–biosphere interactions in triggering the last glaciation. Geophysical Research Letters, 23, 3191–4.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , and , 2000. Mid-Holocene greening of the Sahara: first results of the GAIM 6000 year BP experiment with two asynchronously coupled atmosphere/biome models. Climate Dynamics, 16, 643–59.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and , 2002. Global climate sensitivity to land surface change: the Mid Holocene revisited. Geophysical Research Letters, 29, 1476, 10.1029/2002GL014880.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , , and , 2000. Fully coupled climate/dynamical vegetation model simulations over Northern Africa during the mid-Holocene. Climate Dynamics, 16, 561–73.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and , 1996. Influence of the temperate and boreal forests on the Northern Hemisphere climate in the Météo-France climate model. Climate Dynamics, 13, 57–74.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , , et al., 2000. Importance of vegetation feedbacks in doubled-CO2 climate experiments. Journal of Geophysical Research, 105D, 14 841–61.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , , et al., 2000. Land–atmosphere energy exchange in Arctic tundra and boreal forest: available data and feedbacks to climate. Global Change Biology, 6(s1), 84–115.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, 1968. Spatial variation of net radiation, albedo and surface temperature of forests. Journal of Applied Meteorology, 7, 789–95.2.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, 1971. Solar radiation absorption by leafless hardwood forests. Agricultural Meteorology, 9, 3–20.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , , and , 1994. Feedbacks between climate and boreal forests during the Holocene epoch. Nature, 371, 52–4.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , , and , 2003. Regime shifts in the Sahara and Sahel: interactions between ecological and climatic systems in northern Africa. Ecosystems, 6, 524–39.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and , 1996. Role of orbitally induced changes in tundra area in the onset of glaciation. Nature, 381, 503–5.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , and , 2005. Coupled atmosphere–ocean–vegetation simulations for modern and mid-Holocene climates: role of extratropical vegetation cover feedbacks. Climate Dynamics, 25, 755–76.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , , , and , 1998. The influence of vegetation–atmosphere–ocean interaction on climate during the mid-Holocence. Science 280, 1916–19.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , , et al., 2005. MODIS bidirectional reflectance distribution function and albedo Climate Modeling Grid products and the variability of albedo for major global vegetation types. Journal of Geophysical Research, 110D, D01104, doi:10.1029/2004JD005190.Google Scholar
, , , et al., 2006. Detection of a direct carbon dioxide effect in continental river runoff records. Nature, 439, 835–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, , , et al., 2004. The boreal climate. In Vegetation, Water, Humans and the Climate: a New Perspective on an Interactive System, ed. , , , et al. Springer, pp. 93–114.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, 1968. The Arctic. Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society, 94, 439–59.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , and , 1995. Sensitivity of global climate model simulations to increased stomatal resistance and CO2 increases. Journal of Climate, 8, 1738–56.2.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and , 2003. The role of stomata in sensing and driving environmental change. Nature, 424, 901–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, , , et al., 2005. Evidence and implications of recent climate change in northern Alaska and other Arctic regions. Climatic Change, 72, 251–98.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , , et al., 1998. Mid-Holocene land-surface conditions in northern Africa and the Arabian peninsula: a data set for the analysis of biogeophysical feedbacks in the climate system. Global Biogeochemical Cycles, 12, 35–51.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , and , 2003. Role of the biosphere in the mid-Holocene climate of West Africa. Journal of Geophysical Research, 108D, 4042, doi:10.1029/2001JD000989.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , and , 2003. Greening of arctic Alaska, 1981–2001. Geophysical Research Letters, 30, 2067, doi:10.1029/2003GL018268.Google Scholar
, , , et al., 2002. How does snow impact the albedo of vegetated land surfaces as analyzed with MODIS data?Geophysical Research Letters, 29, 1374, doi:10.1029/2001GL014132.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , , and , 1998a. Simulated climate and biomes of Africa during the late Quaternary: comparison with pollen and lake status data. Quaternary Science Reviews, 17, 629–57.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , , et al., 1998b. Biome reconstruction from pollen and plant macrofossil data for Africa and the Arabian peninsula at 0 and 6000 years. Journal of Biogeography, 25, 1007–27.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , , et al., 1999. Monsoon changes for 6000 years ago: results of 18 simulations from the Paleoclimate Modeling Intercomparison Project (PMIP). Geophysical Research Letters, 26, 859–62.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and , 2006. Enhanced albedo feedback in North Africa from possible combined vegetation and soil-formation processes. Climate Dynamics, 26, 55–63.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and , 1998. Simulation of the global bio-geophysical interactions during the Last Glacial Maximum. Climate Dynamics 14, 461–71.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , , and , 2006. Sensitivity of the last glacial inception to initial and surface conditions. Climate Dynamics, 27, 333–44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , , , and , 1999. Spatial heterogeneity of albedo over a snow-covered agricultural landscape. Journal of Geophysical Research, 104D, 19 551–7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and , 1997. Response of the African monsoon to orbital forcing and ocean feedbacks in the middle Holocene. Science 278, 440–3.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and , 1982. The sensitivity of the African–Asian monsoonal climate to orbital parameter changes for 9000 years B.P. in a low-resolution general circulation model. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences, 39, 1177–88.2.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , , and , 1996. Vegetation and soil feedbacks on the response of the African monsoon to orbital forcing in the early to middle Holocene. Nature, 384, 623–6.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and , 1995. Energy partitioning at treeline forest and tundra sites and its sensitivity to climate change. Atmosphere–Ocean, 33, 121–33.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , and , 1992. Energy balance differences and hydrologic impacts across the northern treeline. International Journal of Climatology, 12, 193–203.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , and , 1993. Seasonal changes in the radiation balance of subarctic forest and tundra. Arctic and Alpine Research, 25, 32–6.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , and , 1997. Spatial and temporal variations in surface albedo of a subarctic landscape using surface-based measurements and remote sensing. Arctic and Alpine Research, 29, 261–9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, 1980. The Boreal Ecosystem. Academic Press, 500 pp.
and , 2001. Daisyworld revisited: quantifying biological effects on planetary self-regulation. Tellus, 53B, 288–305.Google Scholar
, , and , 1999a. CO2, climate, and vegetation feedbacks at the Last Glacial Maximum. Journal of Geophysical Research, 104D, 31 191–8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , and , 1999b. Potential high-latitude vegetation feedbacks on CO2-induced climate change. Geophysical Research Letters, 26, 747–50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , , and , 1999c. On the stability of the high-latitude climate–vegetation system in a coupled atmosphere–biosphere model. Global Ecology and Biogeography, 8, 489–500.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , and , 2000. Large-scale vegetation feedbacks on a doubled CO2 climate. Journal of Climate, 13, 1313–25.2.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , and , 2004. Soil feedback drives the mid-Holocene North African monsoon northward in fully coupled CCSM2 simulations with a dynamic vegetation model. Climate Dynamics, 23, 791–802.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , , and , 2002. Modelled changes in arctic tundra snow, energy and moisture fluxes due to increased shrubs. Global Change Biology, 8, 17–32.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , , and , 2005. Changes in the surface energy budget after fire in boreal ecosystems of interior Alaska: an annual perspective. Journal of Geophysical Research, 110D, D13101, doi:10.1029/2004JD005158.Google Scholar
, , , , and , 2006. On the cause of abrupt vegetation collapse in North Africa during the Holocene: climate variability vs. vegetation feedback. Geophysical Research Letters, 33, L22709, doi:10.1029/2006GL028062.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , and , 2001. The Alaskan Arctic frontal zone: forcing by orography, coastal contrast, and the boreal forest. Journal of Climate, 14, 4351–62.2.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , , , and , 2004. Natural and anthropogenic climate change: incorporating historical land cover change, vegetation dynamics and the global carbon cycle. Climate Dynamics, 22, 461–79.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, 1987. The albedo of a mature mixed forest and a clear-cut site at Petawawa, Ontario. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology, 40, 251–63.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , and , 1999. Fossil plants and global warming at the Triassic–Jurassic boundary. Science, 285, 1386–90.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, , , and , 2003. The role of land surface dynamics in glacial inception: a study with the UVic Earth System Model. Climate Dynamics, 21, 515–37.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , and , 1999. Self-sustained temperature oscillations on Daisyworld. Tellus, 51B, 806–14.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , , et al., 2005. Simulated and observed preindustrial to modern vegetation and climate changes. Journal of Climate, 18, 3650–71.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , and , 2007. Global vegetation and climate change due to future increases in CO2 as projected by a fully coupled model with dynamic vegetation. Journal of Climate, 20, 70–90.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and ., 1997. Vegetation-induced warming of high-latitude regions during the Late Cretaceous period. Nature, 385, 804–7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and , 1990. Changes in N and S leaf content, stomatal density and specific leaf area of 14 plant species during the last three centuries of CO2 increase. Journal of Experimental Botany, 41, 1119–24.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and , 1995. The boreal forest and the polar front. Journal of Geophysical Research, 100D, 25 755–8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and , 1995. Use of a land-surface-transfer scheme (LSX) in a global climate model: the response to doubling stomatal resistance. Global and Planetary Change, 10, 129–61.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , , et al., 1992. A global biome model based on plant physiology and dominance, soil properties and climate. Journal of Biogeography, 19, 117–34.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , and BIOME6000, 2000. Mid-Holocene and glacial-maximum vegetation geography of the northern continents and Africa. Journal of Biogeography, 27, 507–19.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , and , 2005. Consequences of inter-specific competition among multiple adaptive species in Daisyworld. Theoretical and Applied Climatology, 81, 137–47.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , , et al., 2006. The impact of boreal forest fire on climate warming. Science, 314, 1130–2.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, , , et al., 2005. Simulating the Holocene climate evolution at northern high latitudes using a coupled atmosphere–sea ice–ocean–vegetation model. Climate Dynamics, 24, 23–43.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and , 1984. Albedo of a dissipating snow cover. Journal of Climate and Applied Meteorology, 23, 1626–34.2.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and , 1985. Maximum surface albedo of seasonally snow-covered lands in the Northern Hemisphere. Journal of Climate and Applied Meteorology, 24, 402–11.2.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, 1984a. Microclimate at arctic tree line. 1. Radiation balance of tundra and forest. Water Resources Research, 20, 57–66.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, 1984b. Microclimate of arctic tree line. 2. Soil microclimate of tundra and forest. Water Resources Research, 20, 67–73.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, 1984c. Microclimate at arctic tree line. 3. The effects of regional advection on the surface energy balance of upland tundra. Water Resources Research, 20, 74–8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , , et al., 2001. Paleobotanical evidence for near present-day levels of atmospheric CO2 during part of the Tertiary. Science, 292, 2310–13.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, , , et al., 1996. Comparison of radiative and physiological effects of doubled atmospheric CO2 on climate. Science, 271, 1402–6.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , , et al., 1997. BOREAS in 1997: experiment overview, scientific results, and future directions. Journal of Geophysical Research, 102D, 28 731–69.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , and (eds.), 1992. A Systems Analysis of the Global Boreal Forest. Cambridge University Press, 565 pp.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , and , 2004. Evaluating the influence of different vegetation biomes on the global climate. Climate Dynamics, 23, 279–302.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and , 1993. Holocene vegetation, lake levels, and climate of Africa. In Global Climates since the Last Glacial Maximum, ed. , , , et al. University of Minnesota Press, pp. 318–56.Google Scholar
, , , et al., 2001. Snow–shrub interactions in Arctic tundra: a hypothesis with climatic implications. Journal of Climate, 14, 336–44.2.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , , and , 2005a. Changing snow and shrub conditions affect albedo with global implications. Journal of Geophysical Research, 110G, G01004, doi:10.1029/2005JG000013.Google Scholar
, , , et al., 2005b. Winter biological processes could help convert arctic tundra to shrubland. BioScience, 55, 17–26.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , and , 2006. The evidence for shrub expansion in Northern Alaska and the Pan-Arctic. Global Change Biology, 12, 686–702.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, 1996. Potential role of vegetation feedback in the climate sensitivity of high-latitude regions: a case study at 6000 years B.P. Global Biogeochemical Cycles, 10, 727–36.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , , et al., 1997. Quantifying the role of biosphere–atmosphere feedbacks in climate change: coupled model simulations for 6000 years BP and comparison with palaeodata for northern Eurasia and northern Africa. Climate Dynamics, 13, 865–82.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , and , 2000. Sensitivity of the African and Asian monsoons to mid-Holocene insolation and data-inferred surface changes. Journal of Climate, 13, 164–81.2.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and , 1992. The boreal forests and climate. Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society, 118, 469–97.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , and , 1994. Trends in stomatal density and 13C/12C ratios of Pinus flexilis needles during last glacial–interglacial cycle. Science, 264, 239–43.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, , , et al., 1999. Century-scale shifts in early Holocene atmospheric CO2 concentration. Science, 284, 1971–3.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, 2004. A conceptual modeling study on biosphere–atmosphere interactions and its implications for physically based climate modeling. Journal of Climate, 17, 2572–83.2.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and , 2000. Biosphere–atmosphere interactions over West Africa. II: Multiple climate equilibria. Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society, 126, 1261–80.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , , and , 2005. The greening of the McGill Paleoclimate Model. Part II: Simulation of Holocene millennial-scale natural climate changes. Climate Dynamics, 24, 481–96.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and , 1983. Biological homeostasis of the global environment: the parable of Daisyworld. Tellus, 35B, 284–9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , and , 2004. Synergistic feedbacks between ocean and vegetation on mid- and high-latitude climates during the mid-Holocene. Climate Dynamics, 22, 223–38.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, 1987. Stomatal numbers are sensitive to increases in CO2 from pre-industrial levels. Nature, 327, 617–18.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, 1993. Plant responses to past concentrations of CO2. Vegetatio, 104/105, 145–55.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and , 2001. Influence of vegetation changes during the Last Glacial Maximum using the BMRC atmospheric general circulation model. Climate Dynamics, 17, 923–32.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and , 2000. The role of vegetation–climate interaction and interannual variability in shaping the African savanna. Journal of Climate, 13, 2665–70.2.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , and , 2002. Nonlinear dynamics in a coupled vegetation–atmosphere system and implications for desert–forest gradient. Journal of Climate, 15, 3474–87.2.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and , 2006. Thermodynamic and hydrological impacts of increasing greenness in northern high latitudes. Journal of Hydrometeorology, 7, 1147–63.CrossRefGoogle Scholar