George Karamanolis shows that early Christian thinkers, following the example of classical philosophy, developed a highly sophisticated method of philosophical thinking by means of which they constructed some of the most fundamental doctrines of Christianity. The book examines the character of early Christian philosophy and goes on to place the development of this philosophy in its cultural and historical context. The core of the book deals thematically with the central philosophical concerns of early Christian thinkers of the second and third centuries - Justin, Clement, Origen, the Cappadoceans and others - and counters current scholarly opinion that posits that Christianity was unable to accommodate philosophical reasoning.

Organised in broadly chronological terms, this book presents the philosophical arguments of the great Indian Buddhist philosophers of the fifth century BCE to the eighth century CE. Each chapter examines their core ethical, metaphysical and epistemological views as well as the distinctive area of Buddhist ethics that we call today moral psychology. Throughout, the book follows three key themes that both tie the tradition together and are the focus for most critical dialogue: the idea of an?tman or no-self, the appearance/reality distinction and the moral aim, or ideal. Indian Buddhist philosophy is shown to be a remarkably rich tradition that deserves much wider engagement from European philosophy. Carpenter shows that while we should recognise the differences and distances between Indian and European philosophy, its driving questions and key conceptions, we must resist the temptation to find in Indian Buddhist philosophy, some Other, something foreign, self-contained and quite detached from anything familiar. Indian Buddhism is shown to be a way of looking at the world that shares many of the features of European philosophy and considers themes central to philosophy understood in the European tradition.

Confucianism presents the history and salient tenets of Confucian thought, and discusses its viability, from both a social and a philosophical point of view, in the modern world. Despite most of the major Confucian texts having been translated into English, there remains a surprising lack of straightforward textbooks on Confucian philosophy in any Western language. Those that do exist are often oriented from the point of view of Western philosophy - or, worse, a peculiar school of thought within Western philosophy - and advance correspondingly skewed interpretations of Confucianism. This book seeks to rectify this situation. It guides readers through the philosophies of the three major classical Confucians: Confucius (551-479 BC), Mencius (372-289 BC), and Xunzi (fl. 3rd cent. BC), and concludes with an overview of later Confucian revivals and the standing of Confucianism today.

Plato (c.428-347 BCE) stands at the beginning of many debates that have continued throughout the history of philosophy. His literary career spanned fifty years and the influence of his ideas and those of his followers pervaded philosophy throughout antiquity. Andrew Mason’s lucid and engaging introduction, draws on recent scholarship to offer a fresh general survey of Plato’s philosophy. Aware of the methodological challenges that confront any writer on Plato, Mason handles the issue of Plato’s intellectual development and relationship with Socrates with an assured grasp. Thematically structured, the book begins with Plato’s principal contribution to metaphysics, the “Theory of Forms”, which forms a necessary background to his thought in many areas. His theory of knowledge, which is intimately linked with the Forms is explored in detail along with Plato’s views of the soul, an important theme in itself and an entry point to discussion of his ethics, one of Plato’s major concerns. Finally, the book deals with two areas of Plato’s thought which have had an especially important historical impact, not confined to academic philosophy: his theory of God and nature, and his aesthetics. Throughout, Mason highlights the continuing themes in Plato’s work and how they develop from one dialogue to another.

Epicureanism was one of the major philosophical systems of the Hellenistic world. It provided a systematic account of the nature of the world and our place in it, how we can come to know the world, and how we can attain happiness. Founded by Epicurus of Samos (c.341-270 BCE) the Epicurean school of philosophy flourished for hundreds of years after Epicurus’ death, and its rediscovery helped shape the scientific revolution. This clear and engaging introduction provides lucid exposition of the central tenets of Epicurus’ philosophy. Part 1 of the book examines the fundamentals of Epicurus’ metaphysics, including atoms, cosmology, mechanistic biology, the nature and functioning of the mind, and death. Part 2 explores Epicurus’ epistemology, including his arguments against scepticism and his ideas on sensations, preconceptions and feelings. The third and final part deals with Epicurus’ ethics, exploring his arguments for hedonism, his distinctive conceptions of types of pleasure and desire, his belief in virtue, and his notions of justice and friendship. Tim O’Keefe explores the arguments supporting Epicurus’ positions, indicating their strengths and weaknesses, while showing how they connect to other parts of his philosophy and how Epicureanism hangs together as a whole. Particular stress is placed on those features that have enduring philosophical interest and which parallel debates in contemporary philosophy. O’Keefe shows Epicurus to be a philosopher of the highest order and that even after two millennia grappling with his ideas continues to reward study.

In late antiquity the works of Plato and Aristotle were subject to intense study, which eventually led to the development of a new literary form, the philosophical commentary. Until recently these commentaries were understood chiefly as sources of information for the masters, Plato and Aristotle, they commented upon. However, in recent years, it has become increasingly acknowledged that the commentators themselves - Aspasius, Alexander, Themistius, Porphyry, Proclus, Philoponus, Simplicius and others - even though they worked in the Platonist-Aristotelian framework, contributed to this tradition in original, innovative and significant ways such that their commentaries are philosophically important sources in their own right. This book provides the first systematic introduction to the “philosophy” of the commentators: their way of doing philosophy and the kind of philosophical problems they found interesting. The book begins with an examination of the commentary method as a way of practising philosophy, the commentators’ own understanding of their task, and why the philosophical commentary emerged as it did. The central chapters then explore the most important philosophical themes that occupied the commentators: questions concerning the nature and justification of knowledge, the nature of the soul, questions about the explanation of change in nature as well as cosmological discussions about whether the world is eternal or created. These discussions lead to a treatment of the metaphysical assumptions behind the psychology and epistemology of the commentators, the development of the metaphysical doctrines themselves, and, finally, to the question how the commentators developed the ethical doctrines of their predecessors. In her discussion of these key themes, Miira Tuominen shows how the commentators formulation of philosophical problems can be understood in the framework of similar contemporary problems and in so doing helps integrate the commentators into the same continuum of thinkers who have worked in different historical periods and employed different methods. Although there was no philosophy of the commentators in the sense of a definite set of doctrines, Tuominen shows how the commentary format was nevertheless a vehicle for original philosophical theorizing and argues convincingly that the commentators should take their place alongside other philosophers of antiquity in the history of western philosophy.

Scepticism, a philosophical tradition that casts doubt on our ability to gain knowledge of the world and suggests suspending judgement in the face of uncertainty, has been influential since its beginnings in ancient Greece. Harald Thorsrud provides an engaging, rigorous introduction to the arguments, central themes and general concerns of ancient Scepticism, from its beginnings with Pyrrho of Elis (c.360–c.270 BCE) to the writings of Sextus Empiricus in the second century CE. Thorsrud explores the differences among Sceptics and examines in particular the separation of the Scepticism of Pyrrho from its later form – Academic Scepticism – which arose when its ideas were introduced into Plato's Academy in the third century BCE. He also unravels the prolonged controversy that developed between Academic Scepticism and Stoicism, the prevailing dogmatism of the day. Steering an even course through the many differences of scholarly opinion surrounding Scepticism, Thorsrud provides a balanced appraisal of its enduring significance by showing why it remains so philosophically interesting and how ancient interpretations differ from modern ones.

Although Neoplatonism has long been studied, until recently many had dismissed its complex system of ideas as more mystical than philosophical. Fresh research, however, has provided a new perspective on this highly influential school of thought, which flourished in the pagan world of Greece and Rome through late antiquity. Pauliina Remes’s lucid, comprehensive, and up-to-date introduction reassesses Neoplatonism’s philosophical credentials, from its founding by Plotinus (204–70 CE) through the closure of the Academy in Athens in 529. She explores the teachings of the leading Neoplatonists such as Plotinus, Porphyry, Iamblichus, Proclus, Simplicius and Damascius, with an emphasis on their shared assumptions about metaphysics, epistemology, philosophical psychology, philosophy of self, as well as ethics and politics. She pursues major developments and differences within the doctrines of the school and situates the movement alongside other intellectual movements of antiquity including classical Platonism, Aristotelianism, Stoicism, Gnosticism and Christianity. She also considers Neoplatonism’s enduring legacy in the history of philosophical thought, providing a gateway to its ideas for contemporary readers.

Once regarded as a minor Socratic school, Cynicism is now admired as one of the more creative and influential philosophical movements in antiquity. First arising in the city-states of late classical Greece, Cynicism thrived through the Hellenistic and Roman periods, until the triumph of Christianity and the end of pagan antiquity. In every age down to the present, its ideals of radical simplicity and freedom have alternately inspired and disturbed onlookers. This book presents the first general survey of Cynicism in antiquity for over fifty years. Drawing on a wealth of new research, William Desmond offers a comprehensive study of the most important ancient Cynics and their ideas, examining their rejection of various traditional customs and the rebellious life-style for which they were notorious. Desmond considers both the fragmentary ancient evidence on the Cynics and the historical interpretations that have shaped Cynic philosophy over later centuries. The central chapters locate major Cynic themes; its critique of convention, praise of natural simplicity, advocacy of self-sufficiency, defiance of Fortune, and celebration of freedom; within the rich matrix of ideas debated by the ancient schools and shows that far from being pessimistic or nihilistic, as modern uses of the term; suggest, the ancient Cynics were astonishingly optimistic regarding human nature. Cynics offers a fascinating introduction to some of the most colourful personalities of antiquity and a school of thought which continues to generate much philosophical interest today.

The earliest phase of philosophy in Europe saw the beginnings of cosmology and rational theology, metaphysics, epistemology, and ethical and political theory. It saw the development of a wide range of radical and challenging ideas: from Thales’ claim that magnets have souls and Parmenides’ account that there is only one unchanging existent to the development of an atomist theory of the physical world. This general account of the Presocratics introduces the major Greek philosophical thinkers from the sixth to the middle of the fifth century BC. It explores how we might go about reconstructing their views and understanding the motivation and context for their work as well as highlighting the ongoing philosophical interest of their often surprising claims. Separate chapters are devoted to each of the major Presocratic thinkers, including Xenophanes, Heraclitus, Parmenides, Anaxagoras, Empedocles, Leucippus and Democritus, and an introductory chapter sets the scene by describing their intellectual world and the tradition through which their philosophy has been transmitted and interpreted. With a useful chronology and guide to further reading the book is an ideal introduction for the student and general reader.

Stoicism was one of the most influential schools of philosophy in antiquity and its influence has persisted to the present day. Originating in Athens around 300 BCE, Stoicism flourished for some five hundred years and has remained a constant presence throughout the history of Western philosophy. As one of the most popular philosophies of the Roman world, its doctrines appealed to people from all strata of ancient society - from the slave Epictetus to the emperor Marcus Aurelius. This book provides a comprehensive introduction to this great philosophical school. As well as outlining the central philosophical ideas of Stoicism, it aims to introduce readers to the different ancient authors and sources that they will encounter when exploring Stoicism. The book begins by introducing the ancient Stoics and their works. It then considers how the Stoics themselves conceived philosophy and how they formulated their own philosophical system. The core chapters examine Stoic philosophical doctrines in depth, taking each division of Stoic theory in turn: logic, physics, and ethics. The final chapter provides a fascinating account of the Stoic legacy from later antiquity to the present. The book includes a glossary, chronology and guide to further reading, which, together with its accessible yet authoritative approach, make it an ideal introduction for students and general readers.