The Galactic bulge is the least studied component of our Galaxy. Yet, its formation and evolution are key to understand the formation of the Galaxy itself. Studies on the Galactic bulge have increased significantly in the last years, but still there are many points of controversy. This volume contains several contributions from experts in different aspects of the bulge. Issues discussed include the following: the presence of an old spheroidal bulge, or identification of its old stellar population with the thick disk or halo; fraction of stars younger than 10 Gyr is estimated to be of < 5 to 22% depending on method and authors; multiple populations or only a metal-poor and a metal-rich ones; spheroidal or ellipsoidal distribution of RR Lyrae; formation of the bulge from early mergers or from secular evolution of the bar; different methods of mapping extinction; selection and identification of bulge globular clusters.

The Galactic bulge of the Milky Way is made up of stars with a broad range of metallicity, –3.0 < [Fe/H] < 1 dex. The mean of the metallicity distribution function decreases as a function of height z from the plane and, more weakly, with galactic radius RGC. The most metal-rich stars in the inner Galaxy are concentrated to the plane and the more metal-poor stars are found predominantly further from the plane, with an overall vertical gradient in the mean of the metallicity distribution function of about − 0.45 dex kpc−1. This vertical gradient is believed to reflect the changing contribution with height of different populations in the innermost region of the Galaxy. The more metal-rich stars of the bulge are part of the boxy/peanut structure and comprise stars in orbits which trace out the underlying X-shape. There is still a lack of consensus on the origin of the metal-poor stars ([Fe/H] < −0.5) in the region of the bulge. Some studies attribute the more metal-poor stars of the bulge to the thick disk and stellar halo that are present in the inner region, and other studies propose that the metal-poor stars are a distinct ‘old spheroid’ bulge population. Understanding the origin of the populations that make up the metallicity distribution function of the bulge, and identifying if there is a unique bulge population which has formed separately from the disk and halo, has important consequences for identifying the relevant processes in the formation and evolution of the Milky Way.

The stellar population of the Milky Way bulge is thoroughly studied, with a plethora of measurements from virtually the full suite of instruments available to astronomers. It is thus perhaps surprising that alongside well-established results lies some substantial uncertainty in its star-formation history. Cosmological models predict the bulge to host the Galaxy's oldest stars for [Fe/H] ≲ −1, and this is demonstrated by RR Lyrae stars and globular cluster observations. There is consensus that bulge stars with [Fe/H] ≲ 0 are older than t ≈ 10 Gyr. However, at super-solar metallicity, there is a substantial unresolved discrepancy. Data from spectroscopic measurements of the main-sequence turnoff and subgiant branch, the abundances of asymptotic giant branch stars, the period distribution of Mira variables, the chemistry and central-star masses of planetary nebulae, all suggest a substantial intermediate-age population (t ≈ 3 Gyr). This is in conflict with predictions from cosmologically motivated chemical evolution models and photometric studies of the main-sequence turnoff region, which both suggest virtually no stars younger than t ≈ 8 Gyr. A possible resolution to this conflict is enhanced helium-enrichment, as this would shift nearly all of the age estimates in the direction of decreasing discrepancy.

I review the literature covering the issue of interstellar extinction towards the Milky Way bulge, with emphasis placed on findings from planetary nebulae, RR Lyrae, and red clump stars. I also report on observations from HI gas and globular clusters. I show that there has been substantial progress in this field in recent decades, most particularly from red clump stars. The spatial coverage of extinction maps has increased by a factor ~ 100 × in the past 20 yr, and the total-to-selective extinction ratios reported have shifted by ~ 20–25%, indicative of the improved accuracy and separately, of a steeper-than-standard extinction curve. Problems remain in modelling differential extinction, explaining anomalies involving the planetary nebulae, and understanding the difference between bulge extinction coefficients and ‘standard’ literature values.

We review the observational evidences concerning the three-dimensional structure of the Galactic bulge. Although the inner few kpc of our Galaxy are normally referred to as the bulge, all the observations demonstrate that this region is dominated by a bar, i.e., the bulge is a bar. The bar has a boxy/peanut (X-shaped) structure in its outer regions, while it seems to become less and less elongated in its innermost region. A thinner and longer structure departing from the main bar has also been found, although the observational evidences that support the scenario of two separate structures has been recently challenged. Metal-poor stars ([Fe/H] ≲ −0.5 dex) trace a different structure, and also have different kinematics.

Recent large-scale surveys of galactic bulge stars allowed to build a detailed map of the bulge kinematics. The bulge exhibits cylindrical rotation consistent with a disky origin which evolved through bar-driven secular evolution. However, correlations between metallicity and kinematics complicate this picture. In particular a metal-poor component with distinct kinematic signatures has been detected. Its origin, density profile and link with the other Milky Way stellar populations are currently still poorly constrained.

The Galactic bulge, that is the prominent out-of-plane over-density present in the inner few kiloparsecs of the Galaxy, is a complex structure, as the morphology, kinematics, chemistry, and ages of its stars indicate. To understand the nature of its main components—those at [Fe/H] ≳ −1 dex—it is necessary to make an inventory of the stellar populations of the Galactic disc(s), and of their borders: the chemistry of the disc at the solar vicinity, well known from detailed studies of stars over many years, is not representative of the whole disc. This finding, together with the recent revisions of the mass and sizes of the thin and thick discs, constitutes a major step in understanding the bulge complexity. N-body models of a boxy-/peanut-shaped bulge formed from a thin disc through the intermediary of a bar have been successful in interpreting a number of global properties of the Galactic bulge, but they fail in reproducing the detailed chemo-kinematic relations satisfied by its components and their morphology. It is only by adding the thick disc to the picture that we can understand the nature of the Galactic bulge.

A view of the Galactic bulge by means of their globular clusters is fundamental for a deep understanding of its formation and evolution. Connections between the globular cluster and field star properties in terms of kinematics, orbits, chemical abundances, and ages should shed light on different stellar population components. Based on spatial distribution and metallicity, we define a probable best list of bulge clusters, containing 43 entries. Future work on newly discovered objects, mostly from the VVV survey, is suggested. These candidates might alleviate the issue of missing clusters on the far side of the bulge. We discuss the reddening law affecting the cluster distances towards the centre of the Galaxy, and conclude that the most suitable total-to-selective absorption value appears to be RV=3.2, in agreement with recent analyses. An update of elemental abundances for bulge clusters is provided.

At a bulge latitude of b = −4°, the average [Fe/H] and [Mg/H] values are +0.06 and +0.17 dex, roughly 0.2 and 0.7 dex higher than the local thin and thick disk values, respectively, suggesting a large bulge effective yield, perhaps due to efficient retention of supernova ejecta.

The bulge vertical [Fe/H] gradient, at ~ 0.5 dex/kpc, appears to be due to a changing mixture of sub-populations (near +0.3 dex and −0.3 dex and one possibly near −0.7 dex) with latitude. At solar [Fe/H], the bulge [Al/Fe] and [α/Fe] ratios are ~ +0.15 dex. Below [Fe/H] < ![CDATA[$ ~ −0.5 dex, the bulge and local thick disk compositions are very similar; but the measured [Mg/Fe], [⟨SiCaTi⟩/Fe], [La/Eu] and dramatic [Cu/Fe] ratios suggest higher SFR in the bulge. However, these composition differences with the thick disk could be due to measurement errors and non-LTE effects.

Unusual zig-zag trends of [Cu/Fe] and [Na/Fe] suggest metallicity-dependent nucleosynthesis by core-collapse supernovae in the Type Ia supernova time-delay scenario.

The bulge sub-population compositions resemble the local thin and thick disks, but at higher [Fe/H], suggesting a radial [Fe/H] gradient of − $0.04]] > to − 0.05 dex/kpc for both the thin and thick disks. If the bulge formed through accretion of inner thin and thick disk stars, it appears that these stars retained vertical scale heights characteristic of their kinematic origin, resulting in the vertical [Fe/H] gradient and [α/Fe] trends seen today.