In a survey of herbicide responses among Illinois waterhemp half-sib populations, several were observed with differential responses to imazethapyr and thifensulfuron, two acetolactate synthase (ALS)–inhibiting herbicides. Plants from two waterhemp populations were verified resistant to imazethapyr, but susceptible to chlorimuron, using a nondestructive leaf-disc assay. Sequencing of the ALS gene revealed that imazethapyr-resistant waterhemp plants from both populations had inferred amino acid substitutions at position 653 of ALS. Depending on the population, the serine at position 653 of ALS was substituted with either asparagine (S653N) or threonine (S653T). Waterhemp lines were derived from each population to create uniformly imidazolinone-resistant (IR) waterhemp biotypes, designated IR-62 and IR-101. ALS-inhibitor responses of each IR biotype were compared with a previously identified ALS inhibitor–resistant biotype with a tryptophan to leucine substitution at position 574 (W574L) and an herbicide-susceptible control. Whole-plant dose–response experiments with waterhemp biotypes containing W574L, S653N, or S653T mutations indicated that each biotype was resistant to imazethapyr, but only the biotype with a W574L mutation was resistant to thifensulfuron. In vitro ALS-activity assays revealed unique patterns of cross-resistance among protein extracts derived from each biotype in response to imazethapyr, thifensulfuron, cloransulam, and pyrithiobac. In conclusion, three different forms of target-site–based resistance to ALS inhibitors have been identified in waterhemp.

Weeds compete with crops for light, soil water, and nutrients. Nitrogen (N) is the primary limiting soil nutrient. Forecasting the effects of N on growth, development, and interplant competition requires accurate prediction of N uptake and distribution within plants. Field studies were conducted in 1999 and 2000 to determine the effects of variable N addition on monoculture corn and velvetleaf N uptake, the relationship between plant N concentration ([N]) and total biomass, the fraction of N partitioned to leaves, and predicted N uptake and leaf N content. Cumulative N uptake of both species was generally greater in 2000 than in 1999 and tended to increase with increasing N addition. Corn and velvetleaf [N] declined with increasing biomass in both years in a predictable manner. The fraction of N partitioned to corn and velvetleaf leaves varied with thermal time from emergence but was not influenced by year, N addition, or weed density. With the use of the [N]–biomass relationship to forecast N demand, cumulative corn N uptake was accurately predicted for three of four treatments in 1999 but was underpredicted in 2000. Velvetleaf N uptake was accurately predicted in all treatments in both years. Leaf N content (NL, g N m−2 leaf) was predicted by the fraction of N partitioned to leaves, predicted N uptake, and observed leaf area index for each species. Average deviations between predicted and observed corn NL were < 88 and 12% of the observed values in 1999 and 2000, respectively. Velvetleaf NL was less well predicted, with average deviations ranging from 39 to 248% of the observed values. Results of this research indicate that N uptake in corn and velvetleaf was driven primarily by biomass accumulation. Overall, the approaches outlined in this paper provide reasonable predictions of corn and velvetleaf N uptake and distribution in aboveground tissues.

Twelve populations of eastern black nightshade from different locations in Ontario are resistant to imazethapyr. This study aimed at determining the molecular basis of resistance in these populations and the activity of the resistant acetohydroxyacid synthase (AHAS) enzyme compared to that of the sensitive AHAS in response to different herbicides and branched-chain amino acid concentration. The results of partial AHAS sequencing indicated that all resistant populations had a cytosine331 to thymine substitution coding for an alanine205 to valine substitution. In vitro AHAS enzyme assays of one resistant population showed that the specific activity of the resistant enzyme was 56% less than that of the susceptible enzyme. AHAS from the resistant population was 72-, 70-, and 64-fold less sensitive than that of the susceptible population to imazethapyr, imazamox, and primisulfuron, respectively. Furthermore, the resistant enzyme was less sensitive to feedback inhibition from branched-chain amino acids compared to the susceptible enzyme. Results confirmed that resistance in resistant populations of eastern black nightshade was conferred by target-site modification and that the Ala205Val substitution alters the kinetics and regulation of branched-chain amino acid biosynthesis.

Old-growth forest in Indiana consists of a few remnant stands in a fragmented agricultural landscape. Old-growth stands can differ substantially from more recently disturbed stands in species composition and may be less susceptible to invasion by exotic plant species. Herbaceous species were sampled in quadrats placed in a repeating pattern along two perpendicular transects in six Old-growth stands in Indiana in spring and summer of 2005. Transects extended from forest edges to the center of each stand. Woody exotic species were sampled in 10-m-wide belts centered on each transect during the summer sampling run. Herbaceous exotic species were a minor component of the understory community in all stands and accounted for less than 1% of total herbaceous cover in all six stands. Exotic woody species generally followed a similar pattern. Four sites contained no more than two woody exotic species, and these were encountered at relatively low frequencies and densities. However, European privet and multiflora rose were present in 27 and 48% of quadrats in one stand, respectively. Thus, although both herbaceous and woody exotic species were relatively rare, heavy infestations of woody exotic species are possible. This suggests that, for some Old-growth sites, exotic species can overcome both local and landscape factors that limit their abundance.

The introduced species weeping alkaligrass, and the native species Nuttall's alkaligrass, two of the most salt-tolerant C3 grasses found in arid and semiarid environments of western North America, occur within the Grande Ronde valley of eastern Oregon. Both species occur as weeds within Kentucky bluegrass seed fields and subsequently as grass seed contaminants. Two separate germination experiments were conducted to understand better the seed germination biology of these two species compared to Kentucky bluegrass under negative water potentials or high temperature conditions. Results of these studies indicate that although all three species benefited from an ionic enhancement associated with NaCl, weeping alkaligrass was the most drought and salt tolerant of the three species. Dry seeds of weeping alkaligrass were also particularly tolerant to high temperatures with no differences in germination at temperatures below 50 C, indicating that seed viability under nonirrigated field conditions should be unaffected by high soil temperatures. Under soil temperature conditions as high as 40 C, moist Kentucky bluegrass seeds had the greatest germination rates, indicating that this species should benefit from irrigation more than the other two species.

Pitted morningglory seed were collected in the fall of 2003 from Blackville, SC, and 2004 from Pendleton, SC, to assess the effect of After-Ripening and burial on light and temperature requirements for germination. Pitted morningglory germination was evaluated over a 12-mo period after maturation. Germination was neither stimulated by red light or inhibited by far-red light, nor was it reversible by red or far-red light. Light was not essential for germination of buried seed. Direct exposure to sunlight prevented germination of recently mature seed, but not once seed had sufficiently after-ripened. Pitted morningglory was capable of germination in darkness over a wide range of constant and fluctuating temperatures immediately after maturation. Germination in response to temperature varied with time of year after maturation, with the population from Pendleton having increased germination in May. Thermal fluctuations increased germination of both populations at suboptimal temperatures. Thermal amplitude regulation of germination varied over time and appeared to play a more important role in germination of after-ripened seed than recently mature ones. The ecological significance of changes in germination requirements with After-Ripening is discussed.

The objectives of this research were to characterize the extent of intraspecifc variation in seed characteristics of Powell amaranth and to evaluate whether such variation was correlated with crop rotation history of the collection sites. We compared characteristics of seeds originating from dairy farms with a corn–alfalfa crop rotation history with seeds originating from farms with a history of intensive vegetable production. We hypothesized that (1) multiple years of perennial alfalfa would select for greater seed dormancy and longevity in seeds of the summer annual Powell amaranth, (2) earlier spring planting dates of corn and alfalfa compared with most vegetable crops would select for earlier emergence, and (3) greater competition and lower soil moisture in the nonirrigated corn–alfalfa rotation would select for greater seed size. Seeds from 10 to 20 plants from each of 10 farms from each habitat were collected in the fall of 2002 and 2003 in central New York. To control for maternal effects on seed dormancy, a second generation of seeds was produced from plants grown under common greenhouse conditions. Germination in petri dishes was greater for second-generation seeds from vegetable farms (46%) than for those from dairy farms (32%). Total emergence following overwinter burial in the field was greater for seeds originating from dairy farms (62%) compared with those from vegetable farms (52%). Neither seed weight nor the rate of emergence varied by habitat of origin. Our results suggest that perennial alfalfa in dairy rotations may have selected for greater dormancy and longevity of Powell amaranth seeds. The large intraspecific variation in seed characteristics observed, underscores the importance of considering multiple populations when making comparisons of germination characteristics across biotyes (e.g., resistant vs. susceptible) or species, or when developing and interpreting models of weed emergence or weed population dynamics.

Experiments were conducted in Sri Lanka to compare weed seedling emergence in three sugarcane plots of 0.1 ha planted in October 1995, January 1996, and April 1996. In each plot, weed seedling emergence was monitored for 20 wk in five permanent quadrats on each of three microsites: on ridges, in furrows, and on adjacent fallow land. Soil moisture (0 to 5 cm) and soil temperature (at 2.5 cm) were also recorded. Only crowfootgrass, swamp millet, and guineagrass (all grasses) occurred in all nine planting time-by-microsite combinations. About half of all seedlings emerging over the three planting times were swamp millet, and the next most frequent species was tropic ageratum. The composition of the emerged flora was similar on ridges and in furrows, but more seedlings emerged in the furrows than on the ridges. The highest number of emerged seedlings and of species occurred on adjacent fallow land. The major factor influencing seedling emergence appeared to be soil moisture.

Studies were conducted to determine if altered absorption, translocation, or metabolism were the basis for the reduction in sulfonylurea herbicide efficacy on foxtail species when mesotrione was mixed with a sulfonylurea herbicide. Green foxtail and yellow foxtail plants were grown in the greenhouse and treated at the four-leaf stage with 14C-labeled nicosulfuron or rimsulfuron, applied alone or with mesotrione or mesotrione + atrazine. Absorption of nicosulfuron was greater in green foxtail and yellow foxtail 7 d after treatment (DAT) when applied alone, compared with absorption when mixing the herbicide with mesotrione or mesotrione + atrazine. When nicosulfuron was applied alone, 9% more of the nicosulfuron in green foxtail was translocated at 7 DAT, as compared with when nicosulfuron was applied in combination with mesotrione or mesotrione + atrazine. Translocation of nicosulfuron in yellow foxtail, however, was similar when nicosulfuron was applied alone or in combination with mesotrione or mesotrione + atrazine. The addition of mixing rimsulfuron with mesotrione did not reduce the absorption of rimsulfuron in green foxtail 7 DAT, but the addition of mesotrione + atrazine resulted in a 20% decrease in rimsulfuron absorption 7 DAT compared with absorption of rimsulfuron applied alone. Yellow foxtail absorption of rimsulfuron at 7 DAT was decreased by 11 or 20% when mixed with mesotrione or mesotrione + atrazine, respectively. Application of rimsulfuron alone resulted in 6% more herbicide being translocated to the treated tiller in green foxtail at 7 DAT, compared with an application of mesotrione + atrazine and rimsulfuron. Translocation of rimsulfuron in yellow foxtail was similar when applied alone or in combination with mesotrione or mesotrione + atrazine. Nicosulfuron and rimsulfuron metabolism in foxtail species was similar when applied alone or in combination with mesotrione or mesotrione + atrazine.

In Argentinean crop fields, weed control is mainly achieved by intense use of glyphosate as a nonselective and/or selective herbicide. Glyphosate use is very high as more than 95% of the 16 million ha soybean crop consists of glyphosate-resistant cultivars, always treated with this herbicide. From initial success, inconsistent glyphosate control of Johnsongrass, an invading C4 perennial grass of soybean crops, has become evident to producers from northern Argentina over the last 3 yr. Prior to this, glyphosate provided good control. This study evaluated the nature of these recurrent glyphosate failures in Johnsongrass. Experiments conducted with Johnsongrass plants obtained from seed and rhizome phytomers collected from fields with intense glyphosate use history showed that these populations showed differential survival and biomass productivity when glyphosate treated than Johnsongrass plants obtained from similar propagules collected from field sites with no history of glyphosate use. This empirical evidence establishes that the Johnsongrass survival in glyphosate-treated transgenic soybean fields from northern Argentina is due to evolved glyphosate resistance.

Field studies were carried out at two sites in 2005 using common lambsquarters seed collected from long-term research plots near Scottsbluff, NE; Fort Collins, CO; and Torrington, WY, to determine the effect of herbicide selection pressure on glyphosate susceptibility. Parental herbicide exposure influenced the level of glyphosate susceptibility exhibited by a subsequent generation. Common lambsquarters selected from historical plots receiving continuous and exclusive use of glyphosate exhibited lower mortality in response to 420 g ae ha−1 glyphosate compared with selections from nonglyphosate treatment histories. Selections from rotating glyphosate treatment histories demonstrated an intermediate tolerance response. Differences in response were also influenced by environmental conditions.

Glyphosate behavior was examined in Italian ryegrass plants from Chile that were sensitive (S) and resistant (R) to this herbicide. In order to explain the resistance to glyphosate, contact angles, spray retention, foliar uptake, herbicide translocation, and target enzyme activity were studied. Contact angles of glyphosate solutions at a field concentration were 40° to 45° on the abaxial surface of R leaves as compared to 70° on S. Glyphosate spray retention by R plants was 35% lower than by S plants. Glyphosate uptake by the abaxial leaf surface of R plants was about 40% lower than that of S plants. In addition, in the R plants more glyphosate migrated to the tip of the treated leaves. The target enzyme in R and S plants was sensitive to the herbicide. Based on these and previous results, it is concluded that resistance in this Italian ryegrass biotype results from lower spray retention, lower foliar uptake from the abaxial leaf surface, and altered translocation pattern. The decreases in spray retention and foliar uptake constitute new mechanisms of glyphosate resistance.

Fatal germination of weed seeds occurs when a weed seed germinates, but the seedling dies before reaching the soil surface. Controlled-environment bioassays of velvetleaf and giant foxtail seed fate in Michigan field soil (Kalamazoo silt loam, 1.1% soil organic matter) were used to determine the role of pathogenic fungi and seed burial depth in fatal germination of these species. Fatal germination at 2 cm seed depth was nonexistent for giant foxtail, and rare (< 10% of seeds studied) for velvetleaf. At greater depths, fatal germination remained close to zero for giant foxtail, whereas it increased to as high as 40% for velvetleaf at a 10-cm burial depth. Cultures taken from fatally germinated velvetleaf seedlings were found to contain Pythium ultimum, a soilborne pathogen known as the causal agent for pea root rot. When samples of infected media taken from these cultures were used to inoculate field soil in pots, fatal germination of velvetleaf from depths of 4 to 6 cm increased, compared with field soil inoculated with sterile media. At seed burial depths of 8 and 10 cm, fatal germination of velvetleaf increased to 20 and 40%, respectively, and was the same for unsterilized soil and P. ultimum–inoculated soil. Given that maximal fatal germination of velvetleaf occurred in the unsterilized soil treatment at the 10 cm depth, burial of newly shed velvetleaf seeds to a 10 cm, or possibly greater, depth with tillage equipment may be a practical way of reducing velvetleaf seed banks through fatal germination.

Large proportions of nonhybrid progeny result from controlled crosses between Palmer amaranth and common waterhemp, both dioecious weeds. Agamospermy was proposed as an explanation for this phenomenon, and here we provide evidence in support of this hypothesis. We evaluated 60 nonhybrid offspring from two interspecific crosses, and all plants were females and had DNA content values similar to the female (Palmer amaranth) parent. Among nine hybrids resulting from these crosses, eight were nonviable (lethal or neuter), and only one hybrid allowed for continued gene movement. Cytogenetic evaluation of this hybrid revealed triploidy, further supporting the occurrence of unreduced gametes in these species. In light of this new evidence, we examine earlier data regarding Palmer amaranth by common waterhemp hybridization and suggest some prior conclusions may be premature.

Experiments were conducted in 2002 and 2003 to determine the influence of soil thermal amplitude on common cocklebur emergence. Additionally, common cocklebur achenes were collected in fall of 2003 and of 2004 to assess changes in light and temperature requirements for germination over a 12-mo period under field conditions. Common cocklebur germination in response to the light environment and to constant and fluctuating temperatures were evaluated under controlled conditions following achene retrieval from the field. There was a linear inverse relationship between shade intensity and soil thermal amplitude, which explained 77% of the variability in emergence in the field over 2 yr. Emergence decreased as soil thermal amplitude declined, with 95% shading resulting in a 72 to 88% reduction in emergence. Neither red nor far-red light had much effect on germination, and burial did not induce a light requirement. Germination of achenes retrieved from the soil surface or buried in soil generally was not affected by red or far-red light, and the achenes did not acquire a red-light requirement following burial. Daily exposure to natural greenhouse light at 24 to 30 C was essential for germination immediately following achene maturation, whereas no germination occurred in darkness. A thermal fluctuation of 15 C increased germination percentages over those at constant temperatures regardless of time after maturation or retrieval-depth of achenes. The mean fluctuating temperature over all sample dates that was generally optimal for germination was 25 C (17.5/32.5 C low/high temperatures; 15 C daily fluctuation) in April or May and July or August in both years. Germination was generally optimum at constant temperatures of 35 or 40 C. The higher mean temperature requirement for germination at constant temperatures than at fluctuating temperatures likely contributes to reduced emergence in spring and summer months, when earlier emerging weed species or crops have already become established, and the thermal fluctuation requirement for germination reduces the likelihood of emergence in an environment where light availability is diminished.

Species richness and diversity are important indicators of ecosystem function and may be related to plant community resistance to invasion by nonindigenous species. Our specific objective was to determine the influence of clopyralid plus 2,4-D, glyphosate, and fosamine, at different application rates and timings, on richness and diversity of total species, total native species, and total nonnative species within a Russian knapweed–infested plant community. Twenty-eight treatments (3 herbicides by 3 rates by 3 application timings, and an untreated control) were applied to two sites located along the Missouri River riparian corridor in Montana. Clopyralid plus 2,4-D, glyphosate, and fosamine were applied in June (spring rosette stage of Russian knapweed), July (bud to bloom stage of Russian knapweed), and August (flowering stage of Russian knapweed). Herbicide rates were clopyralid plus 2,4-D at 0.08 (clopyralid) + 0.42 (2,4-D), 0.13 + 0.67, and 0.18 + 0.92 kg ai ha−1; glyphosate at 0.6, 1.2, and 1.8 kg ai ha−1; fosamine at 3.6, 7.2, and 10.8 kg ai ha−1. Density of each species was recorded during June and August of 2001 and 2002. Species richness and Simpson's Reciprocal Index (1/D) were calculated. By August 2002, only the glyphosate treatment (4.6 species m−2) yielded greater total richness over that of the control (3.5 species m−2). At that time, diversity after applying clopyralid plus 2,4-D remained similar to that of the control (1.4), but glyphosate (2.3) and fosamine (2.0) increased total species diversity. Nonnative grasses and forbs accounted for the increases in richness and diversity. Glyphosate may be appropriate for enhancing ecosystem function and possibly niche occupation to preempt reinvasion by Russian knapweed, but restoring native species seems unlikely using any of these herbicides alone.

Hydrilla is one of the most serious aquatic weed problems in the United States, and fluridone is the only U.S. Environment Protection Agency (USEPA)–approved herbicide that provides relatively long-term systemic control. Recently, hydrilla biotypes with varying levels of fluridone resistance have been documented in Florida. Fluridone-susceptible (S) and several fluridone-resistant (R1 to R5) hydrilla biotypes varying in resistance levels were maintained in 950-L tanks under ambient sunlight and day-length conditions. To correlate varying levels of fluridone resistance to ploidy in hydrilla, flow cytometric analysis was performed. Differential ploidy levels (diploid, 2n = 2x = 16; triploid, 2n = 3x = 24; and tetraploid, 2n = 4x = 32) were reported among different hydrilla biotypes, plants within each biotype, and within shoot tissues of the same plant. Triploid plants were predominant in all biotypes. Diploid plants were observed in all hydrilla biotypes except the susceptible hydrilla (S). Plants with tetraploidy were rare within biotypes. The diploid, triploid, and tetraploid plants had nuclear DNA contents of 2.43 to 2.73 pg, 3.44 to 3.71 pg, and 4.64 to 4.90 pg, respectively, and no differences were observed among plants with same ploidy for nuclear DNA content in different hydrilla biotypes. Endoreduplication patterns were observed in diploid plants of R1 and R3 biotypes. However, no plant with higher ploidy levels (triploid or tetraploid) in any hydrilla biotypes showed endoreduplication.

Weed seed persistence in the soil seedbank is central to weed population dynamics; however, limited knowledge of mechanisms regulating seed survival in soil remains an obstacle to developing seed-bank management practices. Weed seeds are rich in carbon and nitrogen, and therefore may represent an important nutritional resource to soil microbes. The objective of this study was to test the hypothesis that weed seed mortality due to microbial predation is limited by soil inorganic N availability and soil C:N ratio. A factorial of N fertilizer rate (0, 14, and 28 mg N kg soil−1) and corn stover addition rate (0 and 3,000 mg stover kg soil−1) was applied to bioassay units containing Illinois field soil (silt loam, 3.8% organic carbon) and seeds of one of eight annual weed species common to Illinois field crops: giant foxtail, green foxtail, yellow foxtail, wooly cupgrass, giant ragweed, redroot pigweed, velvetleaf, and Venice mallow. Seeds were incubated for 2 mo, after which they were recovered from the soil and tested for viability. Only three of the eight species, velvetleaf, giant ragweed, and wooly cupgrass, responded to the experimental treatments. Velvetleaf seed mortality was 40% lower in the corn stover–amended treatment than in the unamended treatment. Both giant ragweed and wooly cupgrass showed a more complex interaction between N fertilizer and corn stover treatments. Path analysis supported the hypothesis that the influence of soil N on seed mortality in velvetleaf was because of the direct effect of soil N on microbial predation of velvetleaf seeds, whereas for giant ragweed and wooly cupgrass, the effect on seed mortality appeared to be mediated through soil N effects on germination. Mechanisms underlying soil N fertility effects on weed seed mortality appear to be species-specific. Future investigations of this phenomenon should include quantitative measures of seed coat composition and quality.

Hydrilla is one of the most serious aquatic weed problems in the United States, and fluridone is the only U.S. Environment Protection Agency (USEPA)–approved herbicide that provides relatively long-term systemic control. Recently, hydrilla biotypes with varying levels of fluridone resistance have been documented in Florida. Several biotypes of hydrilla varying in resistance levels were maintained in 950-L tanks under ambient sunlight and day-length conditions from September 2004 to September 2005 in absence of fluridone. Phenotypic measurements were performed during this 1-yr period to monitor differences in growth and reproductive physiology. All fluridone-resistant biotypes (except R3) were growing at the same rate or greater than the susceptible hydrilla. These data suggested that there are no deleterious effects on growth and reproductive physiology because of development of fluridone resistance. Aggressive spread of fluridone-resistant dioecious hydrilla in aquatic ecosystems can severely affect hydrilla management and, consequently, cause substantial and long-lasting ecological and economic problems throughout the southern United States.

In the Grande Ronde Valley of eastern Oregon, two perennial grass species in the genus Puccinellia, weeping alkaligrass and Nuttall's alkaligrass, are weeds of Kentucky bluegrass grass-seed production fields. Weeping alkaligrass is introduced from Eurasia, whereas Nuttall's alkaligrass is native to the region. These two species were studied to determine dormancy attributes and optimal temperature conditions for seed germination. Results from the current studies indicate that both species have a high level of embryonic dormancy immediately following seed harvest, which is primarily eliminated through dry storage (afterripening) and an incubation temperature of 20 C. Following adequate afterripening, a prechill treatment of 5 d at 5 C had an inconsistent effect on germination of weeping alkaligrass (P = 0.012 in 2002, 0.156 in 2003) and improved germination of Nuttall's alkaligrass over both years (P < 0.0001). The afterripening requirement for weeping alkaligrass was more than 90 d, whereas Nuttall's alkaligrass required more than 180 d. Following adequate afterripening, both species had rapid and well-synchronized germination at fluctuating day/night temperatures of 30/10 C given unlimited moisture conditions. Given these results, it is unlikely that seeds of either species would germinate in eastern Oregon during the summer months. The data predict a long viability period under dry storage for both species. Weeping alkaligrass and Nuttall's alkaligrass should exhibit a rapid, well-synchronized germination in the spring as observed in the field.