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Harnessing Local and Transnational Communities in the Global Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  22 December 2020

Josh B. Martin Open the ORCID record for Josh B. Martin [Opens in a new window]
Josh B. Martin*
Affiliation:
Exeter Law School Cornwall, University of Exeter, Penryn, United Kingdom (UK). Email: J.B.Martin@exeter.ac.uk.
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Abstract

‘Communities’ – whether local, regional, or transnational – can provide an essential force in the protection of our global underwater cultural heritage (UCH). As an issue of low political concern, with its protection vulnerable to externalities and compliance weaknesses, UCH forms an ideal test case for exploring governance solutions without reliance on the state. It is also an area where communities are increasingly integrated within governance models. This article examines the theoretical justification for reducing reliance on top-down laws to protect natural and cultural heritage, exploring Ostromian arguments for greater community self- and co-regulation. Using this theoretical framework, it highlights numerous advantages of community-oriented governance in the management of a complex global concern, such as UCH protection, and underscores the role and importance of the appropriate design of meta-regulation in steering communities towards wider public objectives. The article also identifies where communities or ‘networks’ have provided important additional protection for UCH, and discusses further policy mechanisms – such as community buy-in, incentivization, and self-regulation – which could help to facilitate community-led governance in the future.

Keywords

Underwater cultural heritageMarine policyCommunity governanceCollaborative governanceTransnational governanceMarine environmental protection
Type
Article
Information
Transnational Environmental Law , Volume 10 , Issue 1 , March 2021 , pp. 85 - 108
Copyright
Copyright © The Author(s), 2020. Published by Cambridge University Press

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Footnotes

The author would like to extend thanks and gratitude to Richard Barnes, Hitoshi Nasu, Mike Williams, Edwin Egede, Helena Wray, Sue Prince, and Caroline Keenan, as well as the TEL reviewers, for encouraging and instructive feedback on earlier versions of this article.

References

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30 See nn. 8–12 above.

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33 Ibid.; A. Gillespie, ‘Science, Values and People: The Three Factors that Will Define the Next Generation of International Conservation Agreements’ (2012) 1(1) Transnational Environmental Law, pp. 169–82, at 179; A.-M. Slaughter, ‘International Relations Theory and International Law: A Prospectus’, in E. Benvenisti & M. Hirsch (eds), The Impact of International Law on International Cooperation: Theoretical Perspectives (Cambridge University Press, 2004), pp. 16–49, at 46–7.

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35 See n. 31 above; A. Chechi, ‘Non-State Actors and Cultural Heritage: Friends or Foes?’ (2015) 19 Anuario de la Facultad de Derecho de la Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, pp. 457–79, at 474–5; UNESCO, ‘Twelfth General Assembly of States Parties to the Convention concerning the Protection of World Natural and Cultural Heritage: Summary Record’ (8 Nov. 1999), UN Doc. WHC-99/CONF.206/7, para. 20.

36 See, e.g., (2010) 16(1–2) International Journal of Heritage Studies, Special Issue on ‘Heritage and Community Engagement: Collaboration or Contestation?’; A. Hodges & S. Watson, ‘Community-Based Heritage Management: A Case Study and Agenda for Research’ (2000) 6(3) International Journal of Heritage Studies, pp. 231–43.

37 S. Wälti, ‘Multi-Level Environmental Governance’, in H. Enderlein, S. Wälti & M. Zürn (eds), Handbook on Multi-Level Governance (Edward Elgar, 2010), pp. 411–22, at 413; H. Calado et al., ‘NGO Involvement in Marine Spatial Planning: A Way Forward?’ (2012) 36(2) Marine Policy, pp. 382–8, at 385.

38 See sources at n. 11 above; J.C. Morris & K. Miller-Stevens (eds), Advancing Collaboration Theory: Models, Typologies, and Evidence (Routledge, 2017).

39 See sources at n. 12 above.

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41 See sources at n. 27 above, and Galves, n. 29 above.

42 S. Linke & K. Bruckmeier, ‘Co-Management in Fisheries: Experiences and Changing Approaches in Europe’ (2015) 104 Ocean and Coastal Management, pp. 170–81.

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49 E. Brousseau, T. Dedeurwaerdere & B. Siebenhüner, ‘Introduction’, in Brousseau, Dedeurwaerdere & Siebenhüner, n. 13 above, pp. 1–18, at 7.

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56 E.g., Marsden (n. 43 above) illustrates this scale in the context of cyberspace.

57 Marsden, n. 43 above.

58 New York, NY (United States), 10 June 1958, in force 7 June 1959, Art. V2(b), available at: http://www.newyorkconvention.org/english; J.B. Martin, ‘Jurisdictionalists v. Contractualists: Who is Winning the Mandatory Law Debate in International Commercial Arbitration?’ (2016) 27(4) American Review of International Arbitration, pp. 475–94.

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61 See sources at n. 45 above.

62 Ibid.

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71 See, e.g., P.H. Sand, ‘Carrots without Sticks? New Financial Mechanisms for Global Environmental Agreements’ (1990) 3(1) Max Planck Yearbook of United Nations Law, pp. 363–88; J. Tallberg, ‘Paths to Compliance: Enforcement, Management, and the European Union’ (2002) 56(3) International Organization, pp. 609–43; C.D. Stone, ‘Common but Differentiated Responsibilities in International Law’ (2004) 98(2) American Journal of International Law, pp. 276–301.

72 M. de la Torre & R. Mason, ‘Introduction’, in M. de la Torre (ed.), Assessing the Values of Cultural Heritage: Research Report (Getty Conservation Institute, 2002), pp. 3–4, at 3.

73 U. Guérin, Interview with Ulrike Guérin (UNESCO UCH Secretariat), 16 May 2018 (transcript on file with author).

74 Ibid.

75 E. Pilar Luna, ‘The Sound of Campeche: A Place Full of History’, in Grenier, Nutley & Cochran, n. 6 above, pp. 17–9.

76 B. Jeffery & K.A. Palmer, ‘The Need for a Multivocal Approach to Researching and Managing Guam's World War II Underwater Cultural Heritage’ (2017) 46(1) International Journal of Nautical Archaeology, pp. 164–78, at 175.

77 Ibid.

78 Harvey & Shefi, n. 69 above, p. 197.

79 Ibid., pp. 198–201.

80 M. Manders, Interview with Martijn Manders (Netherlands Cultural Heritage Agency), 15 Feb. 2018, (transcript on file with author).

81 A.M. Deming, ‘The Success of the South Carolina Sport Diver Archaeology Management Program’, in D.A. Scott-Ireton (ed.), Between the Devil and the Deep: When the Land Meets the Sea (Springer, 2014), pp. 85–95.

82 J.H. Jameson Jr, ‘Toward Multivocality in Public Archaeology: Public Empowerment through Collaboration’, in Scott-Ireton, ibid., pp. 3–10.

83 S. Dromgoole, ‘United Kingdom’, in Dromgoole, n. 4 above, pp. 313–50, at 325.

84 M.-A. Bernier, ‘To Dig or not to Dig? The Example of the Shipwreck of the Elizabeth and Mary’, in Grenier, Nutley & Cochran, n. 6 above, pp. 64–6, at 66.

85 D.A. Scott-Ireton, ‘Sailing the SSEAS: A New Program for Public Engagement in Underwater Archaeology’, in Scott-Ireton, n. 81 above, pp. 119–28, at 126 (emphasis added).

86 ‘CITiZAN’, available at: https://www.citizan.org.uk; ‘SCAPE’, available at: http://www.scapetrust.org.

87 J. Gribble, ‘Pre-Colonial Fish Traps on the South Western Cape Coast, South Africa’, in Grenier, Nutley & Cochran, n. 6 above, pp. 29–31, at 31. See also J. Gribble, D. Parham & D. Scott-Ireton, ‘Historic Wrecks: Risks or Resources?’ (2009) 11(1) Conservation and Management of Archaeological Sites, pp. 16–28, at 27 (per J. Gribble).

88 L.R. Burgin, ‘Managing Michigan's Underwater Heritage: The Past, Present, and Future of Thunder Bay National Marine Sanctuary’ (2015) 1 University of Michigan Working Papers in Museum Studies: Future Leaders, p. 7, available at: http://ummsp.rackham.umich.edu/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/burgin-working-paper-fl-series-aug-7.pdf.

89 D.A. Scott-Ireton, ‘Florida's Underwater Archaeological Preserves: Preservation through Education’, in Grenier, Nutley & Cochran, n. 6 above, pp. 5–7, at 7.

90 M.E. Leshikar-Denton, ‘Foundations in Management of Maritime Cultural Heritage in the Cayman Islands’, in Grenier, Nutley & Cochran, ibid., pp. 23–5, at 24.

91 T. Drew, ‘Solomon Islands’, in U. Guérin, B. Egger & V. Penalva (eds), Underwater Cultural Heritage in Oceania (UNESCO, 2010), pp. 87–90, at 90. See also C. Breen & A. O'Sullivan, ‘Underwater Archaeology in the Republic of Ireland’, in C.V. Ruppe & J.F. Barstad (eds), International Handbook of Underwater Archaeology (Springer, 2002), pp. 401–18, at 415.

92 Maritime Archaeology Trust, ‘Heritage Partnership Agreements for Undesignated (Marine) Sites: A Pilot Study, Final Project Report’, English Heritage Project 6414, Feb. 2015, available at: https://www.maritimearchaeologytrust.org/uploads/publications/HPA03_MarineHPAs_FinalReport_FINAL_20150226.pdf; Dromgoole, n. 83 above, p. 337.

93 Maritime Archaeology Trust, ibid., p. 19. See also M. Dunkley, ‘Protecting the Marine Historic Environment: Detecting, Investigating and Reducing Heritage Crime at Sea’, Historic England, available at: https://historicengland.org.uk/whats-new/debate/protecting-historic-environment-at-sea.

94 Harvey & Shefi, n. 69 above; F. Maes, written correspondence from Professor Frank Maes (Ghent University), 16 Mar. 2018 (on file with author).

95 Pilar Luna, n. 75 above, p. 19.

96 E.g., S. Barrett, Why Cooperate? The Incentive to Supply Global Public Goods (Oxford University Press, 2007).

97 T.J. Maarleveld, Interview with Professor Thijs J. Maarleveld (University of Southern Denmark), 22 Mar. 2018 (transcript on file with author).

98 Maarleveld, ibid. See also T. Derudder & F. Maes, ‘Workshop: The Legal Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage, 23 April 2015: Final Report’, 23 Apr. 2015, p. 16, available at: http://www.vliz.be/imisdocs/publications/ocrd/274121.pdf.

99 Jeffery & Palmer, n. 76 above, p. 176 (emphasis added).

100 G. Vander Stoep, V. Kenneth & H. Tolson, ‘Shipwreck Management: Developing Strategies for Assessment and Monitoring of Newly Discovered Shipwrecks in a Limited Resource Environment’, in J. Auyong, N.P. Hadley & M.L. Miller (eds), Proceedings of the 1999 International Symposium on Coastal and Marine Tourism: Balancing Tourism and Conservation: April 26–29, 1999; Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada (Washington Sea Grant, 2002), pp. 125–36, at 134.

101 Ibid., p. 134.

102 Ibid., pp. 134–5.

103 Maritime Archaeology Trust, n. 92 above, p. 19.

104 Ibid., p. 21; J.R. Franks & S.B. Emery, ‘Incentivising Collaborative Conservation: Lessons from Existing Environmental Stewardship Scheme Options’ (2013) 30(1) Land Use Policy, pp. 847–62.

105 Mayrand & Paquin, n. 67 above. Not to be confused with the ecocentric view of ‘cultural services’, which merely refers to the cultural benefit of ecosystems. Instead, the term here refers to socio-ecological benefits of cultural systems.

106 See generally Dromgoole, n. 83 above.

107 E.g., N.C. Flemming et al., Land Beneath the Waves: Submerged Landscapes and Sea Level Change: A Joint Geoscience-Humanities Strategy for European Continental Shelf Prehistoric Research (European Marine Board, 2014), p. 19; F. Kvalø & L. Marstrander, ‘Norway’, in Dromgoole, n. 4 above, pp. 217–28, at 221.

108 M.J. Aznar & O. Varmer, ‘The Titanic as Underwater Cultural Heritage: Challenges to its Legal International Protection’ (2013) 44(1) Ocean Development & International Law, pp. 96–112, at 99–100.

109 R. Cornes & T. Sandler, The Theory of Externalities, Public Goods, and Club Goods (2nd edn, Cambridge University Press, 2006), pp. 277–9; F. Cafaggi, ‘Transnational Private Regulation and the Production of Global Public Goods and Private “Bads”’ (2012) 23(3) European Journal of International Law, pp. 695–718, at 703–10.

110 UNESCO Secretariat & Scientific and Technical Advisory Body of the UCH Convention, ‘The Benefit of the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage for Sustainable Growth, Tourism and Urban Development’, 2013, available at: http://www.unesco.org/new/fileadmin/MULTIMEDIA/HQ/CLT/pdf/UCH_development_study_2013.pdf.

111 D. Nutley, ‘Protected Zones and Partnerships: Their Application and Importance to the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage’, in Grenier, Nutley & Cochran, n. 6 above, pp. 32–4, at 34.

112 A. Viduka, ‘Managing Threats to Underwater Cultural Heritage Sites: The Yongala as a Case Study’, in Grenier, Nutley & Cochran, ibid., pp. 61–3.

113 Ibid., p. 63.

114 Dromgoole, n. 4 above, p. xxxvii.

115 K.V. Browne, ‘Trafficking in Pacific World War II Sunken Vessels: The “Ghost Fleet” of Chuuk Lagoon, Micronesia’ (2014) 3(2) GSTF International Journal of Law and Social Sciences, pp. 67–74, at 72.

116 L. Barbash-Riley, ‘Using a Community-Based Strategy to Address the Impacts of Globalization on Underwater Cultural Heritage Management in the Dominican Republic’ (2015) 22(1) Indiana Journal of Global Legal Studies, pp. 201–40, at 207–8.

117 Ibid., p. 204.

118 Ibid., p. 234.

119 See Section 2 above.

120 Flatman, J., ‘What the Walrus and the Carpenter Did Not Talk About: Maritime Archaeology and the Near Future of Energy’, in Rockman, M. & Flatman, J. (eds), Archaeology in Society: Its Relevance in the Modern World (Springer, 2012), pp. 167–92Google Scholar, at 187.

121 R.J. Ringer, ‘Atherley Narrows Fish Weirs’, in Grenier, Nutley & Cochran, n. 6 above, pp. 44–5, at 44.

122 Nutley, n. 111 above, p. 34.

123 MSPP Consortium, ‘Marine Spatial Planning Pilot: Final Report’, Feb. 2006, available at: http://www.abpmer.net/mspp/docs/finals/MSPFinal_report.pdf.

124 A. Firth, ‘Marine Spatial Planning and the Historic Environment’, English Heritage Report No. 5460, Fjordr Ltd, Feb. 2013, available at: https://historicengland.org.uk/images-books/publications/marine-spatial-planning-historic-environment/5460mainfinal_report_140213; Gilliland, P.M. & Laffoley, D., ‘Key Elements and Steps in the Process of Developing Ecosystem-Based Marine Spatial Planning’ (2008) 32(5) Marine Policy, pp. 787–96CrossRefGoogle Scholar, at 792, 795; Papageorgiou, M., ‘Stakes and Challenges for Underwater Cultural Heritage in the Era of Blue Growth and the Role of Spatial Planning: Implications and Prospects in Greece’ (2019) 2(2) Heritage, pp. 1060–9CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

125 BalticRIM, ‘Integration of Maritime Heritage in the Maritime Spatial Planning of the Baltic Sea’, available at: https://www.submariner-network.eu/projects/balticrim.

126 Derudder & Maes n. 98 above, p. 16 (per O. Varmer).

127 S. Altvater, Interview with Susanne Altvater (s.Pro – Sustainable Projects GmbH), 17 May 2018 (transcript on file with author); Maes, n. 94 above.

128 Jentoft, S. & Knol, M., ‘Marine Spatial Planning: Risk or Opportunity for Fisheries in the North Sea?’ (2014) 12(1) Maritime Studies, pp. 13–28CrossRefGoogle Scholar, at 22; Flannery, W. et al. , ‘Evaluating Conditions for Transboundary Marine Spatial Planning: Challenges and Opportunities on the Island of Ireland’ (2015) 51 Marine Policy, pp. 86–95CrossRefGoogle Scholar, at 86.

129 Maarleveld, n. 97 above.

130 Bicket, A. et al. , ‘Heritage Management and Submerged Prehistory in the United Kingdom’, in Evans, A.M., Flatman, J. & Flemming, N.C. (eds), Prehistoric Archaeology on the Continental Shelf: A Global Review (Springer, 2014), pp. 213–32CrossRefGoogle Scholar, at 230.

131 Flatman, n. 120 above, p. 174; Holbrook, R. & McDonald, J., ‘Offsetting Cultural Heritage: Lessons from the Theory and Practice of Biodiversity Offsets’ (2018) 35(3) Environmental and Planning Law Journal, pp. 247–66Google Scholar.

132 A. Firth, ‘Marine Aggregates and Prehistory’, in Grenier, Nutley & Cochran, n. 6 above, pp. 8–10; Dellino-Musgrave, V., Gupta, S. & Russell, M., ‘Marine Aggregates and Archaeology: A Golden Harvest?’ (2009) 11(1) Conservation and Management of Archaeological Sites, pp. 29–42CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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134 van Tatenhove, J.P., ‘Transboundary Marine Spatial Planning: A Reflexive Marine Governance Experiment?’ (2017) 19(6) Journal of Environmental Policy & Planning, pp. 783–94CrossRefGoogle Scholar, at 784.

135 Secci, M. & Spanu, P.G., ‘Critique of Practical Archaeology: Underwater Cultural Heritage and Best Practices’ (2015) 10(1) Journal of Maritime Archaeology, pp. 29–44CrossRefGoogle Scholar, at 32.

136 Leshikar-Denton, M.E., ‘Cooperation is the Key: We can Protect the Underwater Cultural Heritage’ (2010) 5(2) Journal of Maritime Archaeology, pp. 85–95CrossRefGoogle Scholar, at 93 (emphasis added).

137 See Section 3.3 above.

138 See sources at n. 124 above, and BalticRim, n. 125 above.

139 See Gunningham & Grabosky, n. 40 above.