1 For Tyndale's influence see, in particular, Daiches, D., The King James Version of the English Bible (Chicago, 1941)Google Scholar and Butterworth, C. C., The Literary Lineage of the King James Bible (Philadelphia, 1941)Google Scholar.

2 Butterworth considers Wyclif s influence, but hardly takes a sample large enough to arrive at any definite conclusion. Since the Wyclif Bible is based entirely on the Vulgate, I have not given it separate consideration in diis paper. Luther's Pentateuch appeared in 1523; all my quotations from it are taken from D. Martin Luthers Werke. Kritische Gesamtausgabe, Abteilung 3, Die Deutsche Bibel, Bd. 8 Weimar, 1906—61). Pagninus’ translation appeared in 1527. Little or no useful work has been done on the relation of Tyndale's translation to diis version, and because of the short period between the two—one must assume diat Tyndale was well into his work before he could obtain a copy of Pagninus—it would be dangerous to assume that any particular rendering was derived from that source. I have, therefore, kept most of my citations of Pagninus in this paper to die notes. There is no modern edition; I have used a first edition in die John Rylands Library, Manchester.

3 Tyndale considered a translation of Isocrates a sufficiently scholarly task to recommend him as a translator of die New Testament to die Bishop of London. See die preface “To die Reader” in his 1530 Pentateuch.

4 Westcott, B. F., A General View of the History of the English Bible , 3rd ed., (London, 1905), p. 154 Google Scholar; Mombert, J. I., ed., William Tyndale's Five Books of Moses Called the Pentateuch (Fontwell, 1967)Google Scholar.

5 The History of the English Bible, 5th ed., (London, 1911), pp. 88-89.

6 “The Sixteenth Century English Versions,” in The Bible in its Ancient and English Versions, ed. H. W. Robinson (Oxford, 1940), pp. 162—163.

7 Mozley, J. F., “Tyndale's Knowledge of Hebrew,” Journal of Theological Studies , 36 (1935), 396.Google Scholar

8 The King James Version, pp. 5, 149, 173-174.

9 Cambridge History of the Bible, III (Cambridge, 1963), 144

10 William Tyndale's Five Books of Moses, p. cliii.

11 “Tyndale's Response to the Hebraic Tradition,” Studies in the Renaissance, 14 (1967), 110-130. Karpman bases her judgment on a consideration of only six chapters in Exodus. She lists “ten significant mistakes” made by Tyndale which make his knowledge of Hebrew doubtful. Unfortunately, her examples demonstrate her own insensitivity to the demands of translation more than they do Tyndale's ignorance of Hebrew. She taxes Tyndale with translating the phrase wayyipen koh wakoh (Exod. 2:12) as “and he loked round aboute,” rather than “turned this way and that.” This would call into question the Authorized Version's similar use of the offending verb, “and he looked this way and that way.” Like her insistance that Tyndale should have used terms like “to the last ability” or “to the most backbreaking toil” as a rendering for the word beparek (Exod. 1:14), instead of “withoute mercye,” her observation shows a preference for lexicography over translation. To say, as she does, that “a nother daye” is an inferior rendering to “the second day” for the phrase bayyom hashsheni (Exod. 2:13) is mere pedantry. Another “mistake” of Tyndale's is to translate the verb wayya'abidu (Exod. 1:13), which she rightly says means “made to work,” as “in bondage“; actually Tyndale translates it as “held … in bondage,” an entirely respectable rendering. Tyndale's rendering “mydwyves of the Ebrues women,” for meyalledot ha'ibriyyot (Exod. 1:15) Karpman describes as “peculiar,” adding that having “Hebrew” modify “midwives” is more generally acceptable. Even so, there is nothing wrong with the Tyndale rendering, and it has the virtue of retaining the Hebrew word order. Tyndale is also picked up for his translation, in Exod. 1:11, “and he sette taskemasters over theim,” rather than “over him“; but the Bible of the Jewish Publications Society of America, as well as the Authorized Version, has “them.” Karpman quotes approvingly from Rothwell Slater's, J. The Sources of Tyndale's Version of the Pentateuch (Chicago, 1906)Google Scholar, which also demonstrates Tyndale's absolute reliance on Luther, but Slater's case is entirely unreliable: all of his Luther references are taken from the 1545 Bible, not the 1523 one, which means, if anything, that he was demonstrating Tyndale's influence upon Luther.

12 For the best summary of the evidence for Tyndale's responsibility for die historical books of Matdiew's Bible, see Moulton, The History, pp. 126-129.

13 In my quotations from sixteendi-century bibles I have expanded contractions and abbreviations and follow modern typographical conventions in respect to die use of i/j, u/v, and vv. Notice here how Tyndale follows Luther exactly in his translation of the phrase ka'et hayyah as “as soone as die frute can have lyfe.” The Hebrew means, literally, “at the time of reviving,” so the Luther rendering is notably periphrastic. Contrast the Vulgate's “eodem tempore” and the Authorized Version's “according to the time of life.“

14 Cf. the expansive translations of die Vulgate and the Authorized Version: “At ille, nequamquam, inquit Jacob appellabitur nomen tuum, sed Israel: quoniam si contra Deum fortis fuisti, quanto magis contra homines praevalebis?

““And hee said, Thy name shall be called no more Jacob, but Israel: for as a Prince hast thou power with God and with men, and hast prevailed.“

15 Contrast widi Tyndale's “facyon” and Luther's “gestalt,” the Vulgate, which has merely “coelum,” and the Authorized Version's “the body.” The Hebrew is ‘esem, “bone, substance.“

16 Despite the obvious parallel between the two, Tyndale does not follow Luther's word order, preferring to keep to the word order of the Hebrew.

17 For Hebrew transliterations, I have used a modified version of the system given in The Jewish Encyclopaedia, ed. Isidore Singer (New York, 1901-1906, rpt. 1964).

18 Cf. Vulgate: “Et delevit Deus omnem substantiam, quae erat super terram, ab homine usque ad pecus, tarn reptile quam volucres coeli: et deleta sunt de terra: remansit autem solus Noe, et qui cum eo erant in area.“

19 The Authorized Version overcomes the problem by heavy interpolation: “For he feared to say, She is my wife, lest, said he the men of the place should kill me for Rebeckah.” (Original italics) Despite the interpolation the Authorized Version is substantially more accurate than Luther or Tyndale. Luther ignores both pen, “lest,” and ‘anshe hammakom, “the men of the place“; and Tyndale renders “for her sake” rather than, as the Hebrew has it, “for Rebekah.” Later in the chapter, in verse 32, Tyndale does a similar thing with a less sudden switch to direct speech. Luther makes the switch at the end of the verse, but Tyndale keeps it all in the third person:

20 However, Tyndale's “goodes which they had goten” keeps the cognate accusative, which the Authorized Version loses in a poor rendering: “and all their substance that they had gathered.“

21 Cf. the Vulgate which also keeps die distinction between the third person in the first part and the second person in the second: “Uxorem accipias, et alius dormiat cum ea. Domum aedifices, et non habites in ea.“

22 Derek is used similarly in Gen. 19:31, literally “as the way of the whole land.” Tyndale translates it “after the maner of all the world“; Luther, “nach aller welt weyse.“

23 The construct is the nominal relation of two substantives, usually genitival, e.g. instead of saying “a beautiful woman” Hebrew is likely to say “a woman of beauty.“

24 A similar case of Tyndale's avoiding the construct occurs in Gen. 42:9, “where the lande is weake“; Luther, “wo das land ofFen ist“; Hebrew, “the nakedness of the land.“

25 Luther's rendering is interesting because in his 1545 Bible he demetaphorizes the final clause, translating it “des sprache du nicht verstehest.“

26 The word is used once in the Bible to denote God's movement, in Ps. 18:11; otherwise it occurs in metaphors connected with birds of prey.

27 “Even” is often used in the English versions as an equivalent to the Hebrew particle gam, but occurs many other times as an interpolation, often to bridge the gap the Hebrew leaves between a statement and further definition of diat statement. Cf. the Authorized Version's rendering of verses 59 and 64 in this chapter, which include the phrases: “and the plagues of thy seed, even great plagues“; “other gods, which neither thou nor thy fadiers have known, even wood and stone.” (Original italics)

28 The second half of the verse balances two nouns, each with two adjectives, the second adjective being identical:

Each of the versions reproduces the balance in a different way. The Vulgate, as is natural to Latin, follows the Hebrew word order here but varies the identical adjectives:

Luther adopts the more normal German word order, but keeps the identity of the adjectives:

Tyndale obscures the identity of the adjectives and chooses a word order between the Hebrew and normal English, i.e. adjective-noun-adjective:

29 “Und scheyden tag und nacht… das sie scheynen auff erden … das dem tag furstunde … das der nacht furstunde … das sie schienen auff die erde … dem tag und der nacht furstunden, und scheydeten liecht und finsternis.“

30 Cf. Gen. 3:22, where the Authorized Version reproduces the infinitive (my italics): “Behold, the man is become as one of us, to know good and euill.“

31 Note Tyndale's literal rendering “in the eyes of “ where Luther has only “fur” and the Vulgate “coram.“

32 Cf. Pagninus: “Et nunc maledictus eris super terram quae aperuit os suum, ut susciperet sanguinem fratris tui e manua tua.“

33 Tyndale, of course, has still not provided an accurate translation. Cf. the Authorized Version: “And the land which I gave Abraham, and Isaac, to thee I will give it, and to thy seed after thee will I give the land.“

34 The Vulgate has two verbs, but varies them: “Et quae ingressa sunt, masculus et foemina ex omni came introierunt.” Pagninus gives the most faithful rendering: “Et ingressa sunt masculus et femina ex omni carne ingressa sunt.“

35 Tyndale's “felowe” is not only cunning, but goes against the traditional interpretation of the Hebrew word; cf. Reuchlin's comments on it in his De Rudimentis: “Heros, vir magnus, et caput atque praecipuus,” and “homo patricius et nobilis.“

36 Cf. Vulgate: “Surge, fac nobis deos, qui nos praecedent: Moysi enim huic viro qui nos eduxit de terra Aegypti, ignoramus qui accident.“

37 The function of the ‘atnah would have been known by the early translators. A basic Hebrew handbook of the time, Sebastian Muenster's Institutiones grammaticae in Hebraeam Linguam (1524.) describes it as “pausator et ponitur sub qualibet syllaba. Et nota quod numquam veniunt duo aethnahtha in uno versu.” In other places it is possible to see Tyndale taking care to make a different sentence division from Luther because of the ‘atnah. Note, for example, the different effects of their renderings of Deut. 28:24:

38 Cf. Luther's 1545 version: “Alleine esset das Fleisch nicht, das noch lebt in seinem Blut, Denn ich wil auch ewrs Leibs blut rechen, und wils an alien Thieren rechen.und wil des Menschen leben rechen an einem iglichen Menschen, als der sein Bruder ist.“

39 Note the difference between Luther's and Tyndale's translation of nepesh, “seel” and “life.” As in Luther's version, “soul” is the essential menaing of the word, but it has a wide range of extended meanings, including “life.” The Authorized Version follows Tyndale, rendering the phrase “your blood of your lives.“

41 Pagninus gives a full translation: “In anno sexcentesimo annorum vite Noach, in mense secundo, in septimadeciam die mensis, in die hac, rupti sunt omnes fontes voraginis magna, et fenestre coeli apertae sunt.“

42 “Sayd I” is an interpolation. Pagninus gives the most accurate translation: “Nunc surgite, et transite vobis torrentem Zered, Et transivimus torrentem Zered.“

43 Note the way Tyndale keeps to the Hebrew word order in the second part of the verse, despite Luther.

44 Pagninus retains the word: “Sed momento mei tecum….“

45 Luther's 1545 version removes yet another element, the “sight“: “Und wirst unsinnig werden fur dem das deine augen sehen mussen.” Cf. Deut. 7:16. Tyn. “thine eye shall have no pittie uppon them“; Luth. “du sollt yhr nicht schonen.“

46 Vulg. “Et diliget te ac multiplicabit, benedicetque fructui ventris tui, et fructui terrae tuae, frumento tuo, atque vindemiae, oleo, et armentis, gregibus ovium tuarum super terram, pro quae juravit patribus tuis ut daret earn tibi.” Luth. “Und wirt dich lieben und segenen und mehren, und wirt die frucht deyns leybs segenen, und die frucht deyns lands, deyn getreyde, most and ole, die frucht deyner kue, und die frucht deyner schaffe, auff dem land das er deynen vetem geschworen hat dyr zu geben.“

47 English has no equivalent for the German verb “fressen,” but “devour” (taken from the Vulgate) would have given a fair sense of the Hebrew meaning. Tyndale gives the verb its basic meaning in Gen. 31:40, “by daye the hete consumed me,” and Lev. 26:38, “and the lande of youre enemyes shall eate you upp.“

48 Authorized Version “from the presence of.” In the second verse of Gen. 1 Tyndale avoids translating the word: “and darcknesse was upon the depe,” following Luther's “und es war sinster aufF der tieffe.” Cf. the Authorized Version, “and darcknesse was upon the face of the deepe.“

49 The word occurs nowhere else in the Pentateuch.

50 Pagninus uses the same verb, “conterare,” twice. For the similar emphasis of repetition compare Gen. 9:4—5, above, p. 369, where Tyndale, following the Hebrew, repeats “requyre” three times.

51 Cf. Pagninus: “et emisit Loth e medio subversionis quando subvertit civitates… “

52 “Si quando nubes tabernaculum deserebat, profiscebantur filii Israel per turmas suas.”

“Und wenn die wolcke sich auff hub von der wonung, so zogen die kinder Israel, so offt sie reyseten.” Cf. Pagninus: “Et quando recedebat nubes à tabernaculo, proficiscebant filii Israel in cunctis profectionibus suis.“

53 Other cognate accusatives include: Gen. 12:17, “But God plaged Pharao and his house wyth greate plages” (Luth. “plaget … mit grossen plagen“); and Exod. 3:9, “the oppression, wherwith the Egiptians oppresse them” (Luth. “yhr beschwerung, da mit sie die Egypter beschweren“).

54 Interestingly Tyndale obscured the cognate accusative in his 1534 Pentateuch, translating it “made a rent uppon thee.” The other versions render the vefse like this: Vulg. Quare divisa est propter te maceria? et ob hanc causam vocavit nomen eius Phares.

Luth. Warumb ist umb deynem willen eyn sach gerissen? und man hies yhn Pharez.

Pagn. Cur divisisti? Super te sit divisio. Et vocavit nomen eius Péres.

55 All lexicons and grammars of the period were based on this work and the same author's Sefer Michlol. Robert Wakefield, the first professor of Hebrew in England, based much of his Oratio, the first English book to employ Hebrew characters, on Kimchi, referring to him as “the chief grammarian and interpreter.“

56 Cf. Pagninus: “Paulatim, paulatim eijiciam eum…” The phrase recurs in Deut. 7:22. There Tyndale renders it: “The Lord thy God will put out these nacions before die a litle and a litle“; Luther, “ … eyns nach dem auden.“

57 “Und zu schlug es und zu malmet es bis er staub wert.“

58 Cf. Pagninus: “Et contrivi ilium conterendo bene … “ Tyndale finds a neat translation for the same verb in Deut. 5:25, “they have well sayed all that they have sayed“; Luth. “Es ist alles gutt was sie geredt haben.“

59 All my definitions of Hebrew words in this paper are from A Hebrew and English Lexicon of the Old Testament, ed. F. Brown, S. R. Driver, and C. A. Briggs (Oxford, 1907). My only change is to turn verbs from the third person singular perfect, customary with Hebrew definitions, into the English infinitive.

60 The Authorized Version translates them “above thee very high” and “downe very low.“

61 Johannes Reuchlin, De Rudimentis Hebraicis, libri III (Pforzheim, 1506), p. 263. The Rabbi Salomon quoted here is Rashi, an eleventh-century exegete.

62 This verb occurs elsewhere in the Pentateuch, in Num. 22:29. There Balaam answers his ass's inquiry as to why he has beaten him; in Tyndale, “because thou hast mocked me“; Vulgate, “quia commueristi“; Luther, “das du meyn gespottet hast.“

63 De Rudimentis, p. 417. Pagninus reproduces “dispergam eos per angulos” in his version.

64 De Rudimentis, p. 138.

65 De Rudimentis, p. 478.