Hostname: page-component-77c89778f8-fv566 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-07-18T14:48:52.281Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

How and Why Implicit Attitudes Should Affect Voting

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  21 June 2013

Jack Glaser  and
Christopher Finn
Jack Glaser
Affiliation:
University of California, Berkeley
Christopher Finn
Affiliation:
University of California, Berkeley
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Extract

This article provides a foundation for understanding the role of implicit biases in political behavior, particularly implicit racial attitudes and voting behavior. Although racial attitudes have rarely played a major direct role in American presidential politics until 2008, numerous local, state, and federal elections are held every year in the United States that involve minority candidates. As a result, the implications are considerable.

Type
Symposium: Implicit Attitudes in Political Science Research
Information
PS: Political Science & Politics , Volume 46 , Issue 3 , July 2013 , pp. 537 - 544
Copyright
Copyright © American Political Science Association 2013 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES

Albertson, B. 2011. “Religious Appeals and Implicit Attitudes.” Political Psychology 32 (1): 109–30.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Arcuri, L., Castelli, L., Galdi, S., Zogmaister, C., and Amadori, A.. 2008. “Predicting the Vote: Implicit Attitudes as Predictors of the Future Behavior of Decided and Undecided Voters.” Political Psychology 29: 369–87.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Balota, D. A., and Lorch, R. F.. 1986. “Depth of Automatic Spreading Activation: Mediated Priming Effects in Pronunciation but Not in Lexical Decision.” Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, & Cognition 12: 336–45.Google Scholar
Banaji, M. R., and Greenwald, A. G.. 1994. “Implicit Stereotyping and Prejudice.” In The Psychology of Prejudice: The Ontario Symposium, eds. Zanna, M. P., and Olson, J. M., vol. 7, 55–76. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Banaji, M. R., and Greenwald, A. G.. 2013. Blind Spot: Hidden Biases of Good People. New York: Random House.Google Scholar
Bargh, J. A., Chaiken, S., Raymond, P., and Hymes, C.. 1996. “The Automatic Evaluation Effect: Unconditional Automatic Attitude Activation with a Pronunciation Task.” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 32: 104–28.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bargh, J. A., and Chartrand, T. L.. 2000. “The Mind in the Middle: A Practical Guide to Priming and Automaticity Research.” In Handbook of Research Methods in Social and Personality Psychology, eds. Ries, H. T. and Judd, C. M., 253–85. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Bargh, J. A., and Pietromonaco, P.. 1982. “Automatic Information Processing and Social Perception: The Influence of Trait Information Presented Outside of Conscious Awareness on Impression Formation.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 43: 437–49.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blair, I. V. 2002. “The Malleability of Automatic Stereotypes and Prejudice.” Personality and Social Psychology Review 6: 242–61.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blair, I. V., and Banaji, M. R.. 1996. “Automatic and Controlled Processes in Stereotype Priming.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 70: 1142–63.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bruner, J. S. 1957. “On Perceptual Readiness.” Psychological Review 64: 123–52.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Carmines, Edward G., and Stimson, James A.. 1980. “The Two Faces of Issue Voting.” American Political Science Review 74: 78–91.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carraro, L., and Castelli, L.. 2010. “The Implicit and Explicit Effects of Negative Political Campaigns: Is the Source Really Blamed?” Political Psychology 31 (4): 617–45.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carraro, L., Gawronski, B., and Castelli, L.. 2010. “Losing on All Fronts: The Effects of Negative versus Positive Person-Based Campaigns on Implicit and Explicit Evaluations of Political Candidates.” British Journal of Social Psychology 49 (3): 453–70.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chartrand, T. L., and Bargh, J. A.. 1996. “Automatic Activation of Impression Formation and Memorization Goals: Nonconscious Goal Priming Reproduces Effects of Explicit Task Instructions.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 71: 464–78.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Choma, B. L., and Hafer, C. L.. 2009. “Understanding the Relation between Explicitly and Implicitly Measured Political Orientation: The Moderating Role of Political Sophistication.” Personality and Individual Differences 47: 964–67.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cunningham, W. A., Preacher, K. J., and Banaji, M. R.. 2001. “Implicit Attitude Measures: Consistency, Stability, and Convergent Validity.” Psychological Science 12: 163–70.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Devine, P. 1989. “Stereotypes and Prejudice: Their Automatic and Controlled Components.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 56: 5–18.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dovidio, J. F., Evans, N., and Tyler, R. B.. 1986. “Racial Stereotypes: The Contents of their Cognitive Representations.” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 22: 22–37CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dovidio, J. F., Kawakami, K., and Gaertner, S. L.. 2002. “Implicit and Explicit Prejudice and Interracial Interaction.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 84: 754–70.Google Scholar
Dovidio, J. F., Kawakami, K., Johnson, C., Johnson, B., and Howard, A.. 1997. “On the Nature of Prejudice: Automatic and Controlled Processes.” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 33: 510–40.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fazio, R. H., Jackson, J. R., Dunton, B. C., and Williams, C. J.. 1995. “Variability in Automatic Activation as an Unobtrusive Measure of Racial Attitudes: A Bona Fide Pipeline?” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 69: 1013–27.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fazio, R. H., Sanbonmatsu, D. M., Powell, M.C., and Kardes, F. R.. 1986. “On The Automatic Activation of Attitudes.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 50: 229–38.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Finn, C., and Glaser, J.. 2010. “Voter Affect and the 2008 U.S. Presidential Election: Hope and Race Mattered.” Analyses of Social Issues and Public Policy 10: 262–75.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Friese, M., Bluemke, M., and Wänke, M.. 2007. “Predicting Voting Behavior with Implicit Attitude Measures: The 2002 German Parliamentary Election.” Experimental Psychology 54: 247–55.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Friese, M., Smith, C. T., Plischke, T., Bluemke, M., and Nosek, B.. 2012. “Do Implicit Attitudes Predict Actual Voting Behavior Particularly for Undecided Voters?” PLoS ONE 7 (8): e44130. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0044130.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gaertner, S. L., and McLaughlin, J. P.. 1983. “Racial Stereotypes: Associations and Ascriptions of Positive and Negative Characteristics.” Social Psychology Quarterly 46: 23–30.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Galdi, S., Arcuri, L., and Gawronski, B.. 2008. “Automatic Mental Associations Predict Future Choices of Undecided Decision-Makers.” Science 321 (5892): 1100–02.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Glaser, J., and Knowles, E. D.. 2008. “Implicit Motivation to Control Prejudice.” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 44: 164–72.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Greenwald, A. G., and Banaji, M. R.. 1995. “Implicit Social Cognition: Attitudes, Self-Esteem, And Stereotypes.” Psychological Review 102: 4–27.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Greenwald, A. G., Draine, S. C., and Abrams, R. L.. 1996. “Three Cognitive Markers of Unconscious Semantic Activation.” Science 273: 1699–1702.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Greenwald, A. G., Klinger, M. R., and Liu, T. J.. 1989. “Unconscious Processing of Dichoptically Masked Words.” Memory and Cognition 17: 35–47.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Greenwald, A. G., McGhee, D. E., and Schwartz, J. L. K.. 1998. “Measuring Individual Differences in Implicit Cognition: The Implicit Association Test.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 74: 1464–80.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Greenwald, A. G., Poehlman, T. A., Uhlmann, E., and Banaji, M. R.. 2009. “Understanding and Using the Implicit Association Test: III. Meta-Analysis of Predictive Validity.” Journal of Personality & Social Psychology 97: 17–41.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Greenwald, A. G., Spangenberg, E. R., Pratkanis, A. R., and Eskenazi, J.. 1991. “Double-Blind Tests of Subliminal Self-Help Audiotapes.” Psychological Science 2: 119–22.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hofmann, W., Gawronski, B., Gschwendner, T., Le, H., and Schmitt, M.. 2005. “A Meta-Analysis on the Correlation between the Implicit Association Test and Explicit Self-Report Measures.” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 31: 1369–385.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jost, J. T., Rudman, L., Blair, I. V., Carney, D. R., Dasgupta, N., Glaser, J., and Hardin, C.. 2009. “The Existence of Implicit Bias Is Beyond Reasonable Doubt: A Refutation of Ideological and Methodological Objections and Executive Summary of Ten Studies That No Manager Should Ignore.” Research in Organizational Behavior 29: 39–69.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kosloff, S., Greenberg, J., Schmader, T., Dechesne, M., and Weise, D.. 2010. “Smearing the Opposition: Implicit and Explicit Stigmatization of the 2008 U.S. Presidential Candidates and the Current U.S. President.” Journal of Experimental Psychology 139 (3): 383–98.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McConahay, J. B. 1986. “Modern Racism, Ambivalence, and the Modern Racism Scale.” In Prejudice, Discrimination, and Racism, eds. Dovidio, J. F. and Gaertner, S. L., 91–126. New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Meyer, D. E., and Schvaneveldt, R. W.. 1971. “Facilitation in Recognizing Pairs of Words: Evidence of a Dependence between Retrieval Operations.” Journal of Experimental Psychology 90: 227–34.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Meyer, D. E., and Schvaneveldt, R. W.. 1976. “Meaning, Memory Structure, and Mental Processes.” Science 192 (4234): 27–33.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mo, C. 2011. Dual Process Theories of the Mind and Vote Choice: The Consequences of Implicit and Explicit Attitudes on the Judgment of Voters. https://politicalscience.stanford.edu/sites/default/files/workshop-materials/Mo.pdfGoogle Scholar
Moskowitz, G. B., Gollwitzer, P. M., Wasel, W., and Schaal, B.. 1999. “Preconscious Control of Stereotype Activation through Chronic Egalitarian Goals.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 77: 167–84.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moss-Racusin, C., Phelan, J., and Rudman, L.. 2010. “‘I'm Not Prejudiced, but …’: Compensatory Egalitarianism in the 2008 Democratic Presidential Primary.” Political Psychology 31 (4): 543–61.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Murphy, S. T., and Zajonc, R. B.. 1993. “Affect, Cognition, and Awareness: Affective Priming with Optimal and Suboptimal Stimulus Exposures.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 64: 723–39.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Neely, J. H. 1977. “Semantic Priming and Retrieval from Lexical Memory: Roles of Inhibitionless Spreading Activation and Limited-Capacity Attention.” Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 106: 226–54.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nevid, J., and McClelland, N.. 2010. “Measurement of Implicit and Explicit Attitudes toward Barack Obama.” Psychology & Marketing 27 (10): 989–1000.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nosek, B. 2005. “Moderators of the Relationship between Implicit and Explicit Evaluation.” Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 132: 565–84.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nosek, B. A., and Banaji, M. R.. 2001. “The Go No-Go Association Task.” Social Cognition 19: 625–64.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nosek, B. A., Hawkins, C. B., and Frazier, R. S.. 2011. “Implicit Social Cognition: from Measures to Mechanisms.” Trends in Cognitive Sciences 15: 152–59.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nosek, B. A., and Smyth, F. L.. 2007. “A Multitrait-Multimethod Validation of the Implicit Association Test: Implicit and Explicit Attitudes Are Related but Distinct Constructs.” Experimental Psychology 54: 14–29.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Park, S. H., Glaser, J., and Knowles, E. D.. 2008. “Implicit Motivation to Control Prejudice Moderates the Effect of Cognitive Depletion on Unintended Discrimination.” Social Cognition 26: 379–98.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pasek, J., Tahk, A., Lelkes, Y., Krosnick, J. A., Payne, B. K., Akhtar, O., and Tompson, T.. 2009. “Determinants of Turnout and Candidate Choice in the 2008 U.S. Presidential Election: Illuminating the Impact of Racial Prejudice and Other Considerations.” Public Opinion Quarterly 73: 943–94.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Payne, B. K., Burkley, M. A., and Stokes, M. B.. 2008. “Why Do Implicit and Explicit Attitude Tests Diverge? The Role of Structural Fit.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 94: 16–31.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Payne, B. K., Cheng, C. M., Govorun, O., and Stewart, B. D.. 2005. “An Inkblot for Attitudes: Affect Misattribution As Implicit Measurement.” Journal of Personality & Social Psychology 89: 277–93.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Payne, B. K., Krosnick, J. A., Pasek, J., Lelkes, Y., Akhtar, O., and Tompson, T.. 2009. “Implicit and Explicit Prejudice in the 2008 American Presidential Election.” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 46 (2010): 367–74.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Richeson, J. A., and Shelton, J. N.. 2005. “Brief Report: Thin Slices of Racial Bias.” Journal of Nonverbal Behavior 29: 75–86CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Roccato, M., and Zogmaister, C.. 2010. “Predicting the Vote through Implicit and Explicit Attitudes: A Field Research.” Political Psychology 31 (2): 249–274.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rosch, E. 1975. Cognitive Representations of Semantic Categories. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 104: 192–233.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shah, J. Y., and Kruglanski, A. W.. 2003. “When Opportunity Knocks: Bottom-Up Priming of Goals by Means and Its Effects on Self-Regulation.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 84: 1109–122.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sherman, J. W. 2009. “Controlled Influences on Implicit Measures: Confronting the Myth of Process-Purity and Taming the Cognitive Monster.” In Attitudes: Insights from the New Wave of Implicit Measures, eds. Petty, R. E., Fazio, R. H., and Briñol, P., 391–426. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Sherman, J. W., B. Gawronski, and Y. Trope (eds.). forthcoming. Dual Process Theories of the Social Mind. New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar