¹ Parts of this presentation first appeared in Triage: Humanitarian Interventions in a New Era, WORLD POL’Y J. (1994). A more complete version will appear as On the Brink of a New Era? Humanitarian Interventions, 1991-1994, in Beyond Traditional Peacekeeping (Don Daniel ed., forthcoming 1995).

² See generally, Micah L. Sifry & Christopher Cerf, The Gulf War Reader (1991); James T. Johnson & George Weigel, Gulf War The Just War (1991); and Ian Johnstone, Aftermath Of The Gulf War: An Assessment (1994). Events triggered in-depth looks at the subject of intervention in general; see, e.g., Beyond Westphalia? National Sovereignty And International Intervention (Gene M. Lyons & Michael Mastanduno eds., forthcoming).

³ See Chopra, Jarat & Weiss, Thomas G., Sovereignty Is No Longer Sancrosanct: Codifying Humanitarian Intervention, in Ethics & Int’l AFF. (1992)Google Scholar; see also Roberts, Adam, Humanitarian War: Military Intervention and Human Rights , Int’l Aff. (1993)Google Scholar.

⁴ See Humanitarianism Across Borders: Sustaining Civilians In Times Of War (Thomas G. Weiss & Larry Minear eds., 1993) (stating that in the humanitarian areas, they must sometimes even defer to non-state actors); see also Larry Minear & Thomas G. Weiss, Humanitarian Action In Times Of War: A Handbook For Practioners (1993); and Mercy Under Fire: War And The Global Humanitarian Community (forthcoming 1995).

⁵ A recent partial exception is Lisa Martin, Coercive Cooperation: Explaining Multilateral Economic Sanctions (1992), although she too has not analyzed comprehensive sanctions ordered by the UN Security Council. See also Dollars Or Bombs: The Search For Justice Through International Economic Sanctions (1993) (containing a brief working group report from the American Friends Service Committee); Schrijver, Nico J., The Use Of Economic Sanctions By The Un Security Council, Vol. 39 of Development & Security Series (1993)Google Scholar.

⁶ Weiss, Thomas G. & Campbell, Kurt M., Military Humanitarism , Survival (1991)Google Scholar. For an analytically reasoned statement about many of the negative arguments, see Hass, Ernest B., Beware the Slippery Slope: Notes towards the Definition of Justifiable Intervention, in Emerging Norms Of Justified Intervention (Laura W. Reed & Carl Kaysen eds., 1993)Google Scholar; Bernard Koucher & Mario Bettati, Le Devoir D’ingerence (1987).

⁷ In fact, developing countries themselves sought and secured an expansive reading of chapter VII to initiate enforcement measures against white minority governments in Rhodesia and South Africa. Presumably, human rights violations in these countries were not only an affront to civilization, but also a threat sufficient enough to international peace and security for the Security Council to act against egregious racism.

⁸ For a more detailed discussion, see Weiss, Thomas G., UN Responses in the Former Yugoslavia; Moral and Operational Choices , 8 Ethics & Int’l Aff. 1 (1994)Google Scholar.

⁹ The French Government has championed this as la droit d’ingirence, “the right to interfer.”

¹⁰ For this and other gruesome statistics, see Sadako Ogata, The State Of The World’S Refugees 1993: The Challenge Of Protection (1993).

¹¹ See Thomas G. Weiss, David P. Forsythe And Roger A. Coate, The United Nations And Changing World Politics (1994).

¹² See Natsios, Andrew, Food Through Force: Humanitarian Intervention and U.S. Policy , 17 Wash. Q. 129 (1994)Google Scholar; see also Carr, Caleb, The Consequences of Somalia , 10 World Pol’y J. 1 (1993)Google Scholar.

¹³ See Ruggie, John Gerard, Wandering in the Void , 72 Foreign Aff. 26 (1993)Google Scholar.

¹⁴ The headquarters for the Bosnia-Herzegovina Command at Kiseljak, near Sarajevo, includes a kind of subcontract with the Northern Army Group of NATO; the four sectors of the UN Protected Areas report separately to Zagreb; and the Macedonia Command’s headquarters is in Skopje.

¹⁵ Boutros Boutros-Ghali, An Agenda For Peace (1992). For the history of peacekeeping, see Alan James, Peacekeeping And International Politics (1990); and The Blue Helmets (1990). For more analytical treatments, see Weiss, Thomas G. & Chopra, JARAT, Un Peacekeeping: An Acuns Teaching Text; The Evolution Of Un Peacekeeping: Case Studies And Comparative Analysis (William J. Durch. ed., 1993)Google Scholar; Roberts, Adam, The United Nations and International Security , 35 Survival 3 (1993)Google Scholar; Paul Diehl, International Peacekeeping (1993); Goulding, Marrack, The Evolution of United Nations Peacekeeping , 69 Int’l Aff. 451 (1993)Google Scholar; and Berdal, Mats. R., Whither Un Peacekeeping? (Adelphi Paper 281, International Institute for Strategic Studies) (1993)Google Scholar.

¹⁶ Specifically, Washington asserts that NATO should maintain command and control in the unlikely event that a new force materializes soon for Bosnia-Herzegovina. The troops from NATO countries already in UNPROFOR should be integrated in the new NATO command, rather than vice-versa.

¹⁷ See MacFarlane, S. Neil & Weiss, Thomas G., Regional Organizations and Regional Security , 2 Security Stud. 6 (Fall/Winter 1992-1993)Google Scholar; see also The United Nations, Regional Organizations and Human Security: Building Theory in Central America, 15 Third World Q. 277 (19

¹⁸ The sole exception is NATO, which is not a “regional arrangement” but an “alliance,” in order to avoid any suggestion of subservience to the Security Council.

¹⁹ Syria's occupation of Lebanon under the auspices of the Arab League, or Nigeria’s occupation of Liberia under those of the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), illustrate the difficulties that can arise in connection with intervention by a regional organization. See Maynes, Charles William, A Workable Clinton Doctrine , 93 Foreign Pol'y 3 (Winter 1993-1994)Google Scholar.

²⁰ Quoted by Ottaway, David B., in The West Watches for the Ripple Effect , Wash. Post, December 26, 1993, at A33Google Scholar.

²¹ Quoted by Preston, Julia, in U.N. Officials Scale Back Peacemaking Ambitions , Wash. Post., October 28, 1993, at A40Google Scholar.

²² For discussion of these challenges, see James N. Rosenau, Turbulence In World Politics: A Theory Of Change And Continuity (1990); Ethnic Conflict And International Security (Michael E. Brown ed., 1993); August Norton, Richard, The Security Legacy of the 1980s in the Third World, in Third World Security In The Post-Cold War Era (Thomas G. Weiss & Meryl A. Kessler eds., 1991) at 19-34 Google Scholar.