¹ Bodansky, Daniel, A Tale of Two Architectures: The Once and Future U.N. Climate Change Regime (2011)Google Scholar, available at http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1773865. Mitigation refers to actions to decrease the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, either because we reduce the amount we emit, or we find natural or artificial “sinks” that store the GHGS before they reach the atmosphere. Adaptation refers to helping human and nonhuman communities develop resilience to the changes that global climate change will bring.

² E.g., Greenpeace, Carbon Scam: Noel Kempff Climate Action Project and the Push for Sub-National Forest Offsets (2009), at http://www.greenpeace.org/usa/Global/usa/report/2010/l/carbon-scam-noel-kempff-clima.pdf; International Rivers, Bad Deal for the Planet (2008); Greenpeace, The Economics of 2 Degrees Celsius and Redd (2009); Prouty, Ann E., The Clean Development Mechanism and its Implications for Climate Justice, 34 Colum. J. Envtl. L. 513, 529 (2009)Google Scholar; Kevin Smith, The Carbon Neutral Myth: Offset Indulgences for Your Carbon Sins (2009), available at http://www.carbontradewatch.org/pubs/carbon_neutral_myth.pdf; Larry Lohmann, Carbon Trading: A Critical Conversation on Climate Change, Privatisation, and Power 230-33 (2006); Tom Griffiths, Seeing “Red”? “Avoided Deforestation” and the Rights of Indigenous Peoples and Local Communities 14 (2007), available at http://www.forestpeoples.org/sites/fpp/files/publication/2010/01/avoideddeforestationredjun07eng_0.pdf; Humphreys, David, Logjam: Deforestation and the Crisis of Global Governance 208 (2006)Google Scholar; Sinkswatch, Climate Change: The Forest Connection, at http://www.sinkswatch.org/forX.html; see all of redd.monitor.org.

³ United Nations Development Programme, Human Development Report 2007/2008: Fighting Climate Change: Human Solidarity in A Divided World 41 (2007); Lorenzo Cotula & James Meyers, Tenure in Redd: Start-Point Or Afterthought? (2009); American Clean Energy and Security Act, H.R. 2454 §§ 751— 756(2009); § 752(2)2011.

⁴ Boyd, William, Ways of Seeing in Environmental Law: How Deforestation Became an Object of Climate Governance, 37 Ecology L.Q. 843 (2010)Google Scholar.

⁵ I use “North” to refer to developed or industrialized nations. Northern nations have been primarily responsible for creating the problems of global climate change through pollution associated with industrialization; Northern nations are thus the only nations with binding greenhouse gas reduction commitments under the Kyoto Protocol. “Southern” nations are those in the process of development; Southern nations are least responsible for creating global climate change, yet will suffer the most from its consequences.

⁶ Joyce, Christopher, Climate Strategists: To Cut Emissions, Focus on Forests, NPR, Dec. 10, 2011 Google Scholar, http://www.npr.org/2011/12/10/143454111/climate-activists-to-cut-emissions-focus-on-forests?ft=l&f=1025; Governors’ Climate and Forests Task Force, http://www.gcftaskforce.org/; Press Release, Gov. Schwarzenegger Partners with Other States to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Deforestation (Nov. 18, 2008); The Redd Offset Working Group, http://stateredd.org/about-row/; Norway Plans Record 2010 Carbon Capture Spending, Reuters, Oct. 13, 2009.

⁷ David Takacs, Forest Carbon: Law + Property Rights 14 (2009) (providing details of various property arrangements for forest carbon).

⁸ Saunders, Jade, Ebeling, Johannes & Nussbaum, Ruth, Reduced Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation: Lessons from A Forest Governance Perspective 6 (2008)Google Scholar, available at http://www.proforest.net/publication-objects/REDD%20and%20Governance.pdf.

⁹ Takacs, David, Forest Carbon Offsets and International Law: A Deep Equity Legal Analysis, 22 Geo. Int’l Envtl. L. Rev. 521, 523-24 (2010)Google Scholar.

¹⁰ United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), Report of the Conference of the Parties on its Thirteenth Session Held in Bali from 3 to 15 December 2007, UN Doc. FCCC/CP/2007/6/Add. 1 * (Mar. 14, 2008) [hereinafter Bali Action Plan].

¹¹ The more common acronym is “MRV.” The problem with that acronym is that sometimes “M” is for Measuring, sometimes for “Monitoring,” and sometimes for both, even though they are not the same thing.

¹² Schmidt, Jake, Tracking Carbon with Transparency: Improving Accuracy and Accountability in the International Global Warming Agreement, Natural Resources Defense Council (2010)Google Scholar, http://www.nrdc.org/globalwarming/files/trackingcarbon-fs.pdf.

¹³ E.g., Climate, Community & Biodiversity Alliance (CCB), Climate, Community and Biodiversity Project Design Standards 4 (2d ed. 2008), available at http://www.climate-standards.org/standards/thestandards.html.

¹⁴ Hunter, David, Implications of the Copenhagen Accord for Global Climate Governance, 10 Sustainable Dev. L. & Poly 4, 14 (2010)Google Scholar.

¹⁵ Id. at 14; Bodansky, Daniel, The Copenhagen Climate Change Conference: A Postmortem, 104 AJIL 230, 236 (2010)Google Scholar; Niederberger, Anne Arquit & Kimble, Melinda, MRV Under the UN Climate Regime—Paper Tiger or Catalyst for Continual Improvement? 1 Greenhouse Gas Measurement & Mgmt. 47 (2011)CrossRefGoogle Scholar. See Goldenberg, Suzanne, Cancán Climate Change Summit: America Plays Tough, Guardian, Nov. 30, 2010 Google Scholar (describing U.S. intransigence on developing-country inspections).

¹⁶ Moncel, Remi & Levin, Kelly, Transparency and Accountability (MRV) in the Durban Climate Deal, WRI Insights, Feb. 13, 2012 Google Scholar, http://insights.wri.org/news/2012/02/transparency-and-accountability-mrv-durban-climate-deal.

¹⁷ World Resources Institute, Summary of UNFCCC Submissions (April 19, 2010-November 23, 2010), at 10, http://pdf.wri.org/working_papers/UNFCCC_submissions_summary_2010-11-23.pdf.

¹⁸ Schmidt, supra note 12, at 2.

¹⁹ Ward, Murray, To V or Not to V: That it a Question (Oxford Energy & Environment Comment) 1 (2010)Google Scholar.

²⁰ Bodansky, supra note 15, at 233-34; Broder, John M., At Climate Talks, a Familiar Standoff Emerges Between the U.S. and China, N.Y. Times, Dec. 7, 2011 Google Scholar.

²¹ Ward, supra note 19, at 1.

²² Terrestrial Carbon Group, Measuring and Monitoring Terrestrial Carbon As Part of “REDD+” MRV Systems 3, 10 (2009), http://www.theredddesk.org/sites/default/files/resources/pdf/2010/TCG_Policy_Brief_ 5_Measuring_and_Monitoring_Oct_09.pdf.

²³ Id. at 2.

²⁴ Breidenich, Clare & Bodansky, Daniel, Measurement, Reporting and Verification in A Post-2012 Climate Agreement 5 (2009)Google Scholar; Schmidt, supra note 12.

²⁵ Wettestad, Jørgen, Monitoring and Verification, in The Oxford Handbook of International Environmen Tal Law 974, 975 (Bodansky, Daniel, Brunnée, Jutta & Hey, Ellen eds., 2007)Google Scholar; Ward, supra note 19.

²⁶ Boyd, supra note 4, at 853; Boyd, William, Climate Change, Fragmentation, and the Challenges of Global Environmental Law: Elements of a Post-Copenhagen Assemblage, 32 U. Pa. J. Int’l L. 457, 525 n.220 (2010)Google Scholar.

²⁷ Joyce, supra note 6. Note that the more sophisticated this kind of technology becomes, The less the need for foot patrols, but the more intrusive (without national consent) the investigations from above.

²⁸ E.g., the World Bank, Worldwide Governance Indicators, http://info.worldbank.org/goveraance/wgi/index.asp; Kaufmann, Daniel, Kraay, Aart & Mastruzzi, Massimo, Governance Matters Viii: Aggregate and Individual Governance Indicators 1996-2008 (World Bank Development Research Group Policy Research Working Paper 4978, June 2009)Google Scholar; Brito, Brenda et al. A Draft Framework of Indicators for Assessing Governance of the Forest Sector (Governance of Forests Initiative Working Paper, Sept. 2009)Google Scholar, http://pdf.wri.org/working_papers/gfitenure_indicators_sep09.pdf.

²⁹ E.g., Carmenza Robledo, JÜrgen Blaser, Sarah Byrne & Kaspar Schmidt, Climate Change and Governance in the Forest Sector (2008), http://www.rightsandresources.org/documents/files/doc_857.pdf. For a review of where corruption is likely to emerge in REDD+, see Brown, Michael N., Limiting Corrupt Incentives in a Global Redd Regime, 37 Ecology L.Q. 237 (2010)Google Scholar.

³⁰ UN-REDD Programme, Scope of Work—Towards a “Governance MRV Framework,” Draft June 2009, at 3, http://europeandcis.undp.org/environment/sthelena/show/5979879F-F203-lEE9-B50CDC856DB6038E.

³¹ Breidenich & Bodansky, supra note 24, at 10, 14; Wettestad, supra note 25; Schmidt, supra note 12, at 8, 9.

³² Breidenich & Bodansky, supra note 24, at 14.

³³ Niederberger & Kimble, supra note 15, at 47, 51.

³⁴ E.g., Schmidt, supra note 12, at 3.

³⁵ Todd Stern, Special Envoy for Climate Change, “A New Paradigm: Climate Change Negotiations in the Post-Copenhagen Era,” Address at University of Michigan Law School (Oct. 8, 2010), http://www.state.gOv/g/oes/rls/remarks/2010/149429.htm; Walsh, Bryan, At Cancán, a New Pragmatism in Climate Policy, Time, Dec. 13, 2010 Google Scholar, available at http://www.time.com/time/health/article/0,8599,2036642,00.html; Broder, supra note 20.

³⁶ Breidenich & Bodansky, supra note 24, at 1.

³⁷ Bali Action Plan, supra note 10, at 8.

³⁸ World Resources Institute, supra note 17, at 16.

³⁹ Breidenich & Bodansky, supra note 24, at 16.

⁴⁰ Müller, Benito, Is there Room for Compromise? The Debate on Institutional Arrangements for Climate Finance (Oxford Institute for Energy Studies) Oct. 2009 Google Scholar, http://www.oxfordclimatepolicy.org/publications/documents/comment_01_10_09.pdf; Stadelmann, Martin, Roberts, J. Timmons & Michaelowa, Axel, Keeping a Big Promise: Options for Baselines to Assess “New and Additional” Climate Finance, at 2 (CIS Working Paper No. 66, 2010)Google Scholar.

⁴¹ For a full accounting of what a maximally equitable REDD+ project would comprise, see Takacs, supra note 9; John Costenbader, REDD+ Benefit Sharing: A Comparative Assessment of Three National Policy Approaches (UN-Redd Programme 2010).

⁴² E.g., International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED), Carbon Righteousness: How to Lever Pro-Poor Benefits from REDD+ (2011).

⁴³ http://www.redd-standards.org/.

⁴⁴ CCB, supra note 13; Takacs, supra note 9.

⁴⁵ See Nicholas Moss & Ruth Nussbaum, A Review of Three REDD+ Safeguard Initiatives 15-16 UN-REDD Programme June (2011).

⁴⁶ CCB, supra note 13, at 4–5 (listing what counts as social impacts).