Hostname: page-component-76fb5796d-r6qrq Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-26T17:35:28.772Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Cognitive-Behavioral Psychology: Implications for Disaster and Terrorism Response

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  28 June 2012

Josef I. Ruzek ,
Robyn D. Walser ,
Amy E. Naugle ,
Brett Litz ,
Douglas S. Mennin ,
Melissa A. Polusny ,
Dianna M. Ronell ,
Kenneth J. Ruggiero ,
Rachel Yehuda  and
Joseph R. Scotti
Josef I. Ruzek*
Affiliation:
National Center for Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder, Veterans Administration (VA) Palo Alto Health Care System, Menlo Park, California, USA
Robyn D. Walser
Affiliation:
National Center for Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder, Veterans Administration (VA) Palo Alto Health Care System, Menlo Park, California, USA
Amy E. Naugle
Affiliation:
Western Michigan University, Kalamazoo, Michigan, USA
Brett Litz
Affiliation:
National Center for Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder, Boston Veterans Affairs Health Care System, and Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
Douglas S. Mennin
Affiliation:
Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
Melissa A. Polusny
Affiliation:
Minneapolis Veterans Administration Medical Center, and University of Minnesota Medical School, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA
Dianna M. Ronell
Affiliation:
Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
Kenneth J. Ruggiero
Affiliation:
Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina, USA
Rachel Yehuda
Affiliation:
Mount Sinai School of Medicine, and Bronx VA Medical Center, Bronx, New York, USA
Joseph R. Scotti
Affiliation:
West Virginia University, Morgantown, West Virginia, USA
*
National Center for PTSDVA Palo Alto Health Care SystemMail Code PTSD 334 MPD795 Willow RoadMenlo Park, CA 94025USA E-mail: josef.ruzek@va.gov
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Given the personal and societal costs associated with acute impairment and enduring post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), the mental health response to disasters is an integral component of disaster response planning. The purpose of this paper is to explore the compatibility between cognitive-behavioral psychology and the disaster mental health model, and explicate how cognitivebehavioral perspectives and intervention methods can enhance the effectiveness of disaster mental health services. It is argued that cognitive-behavioral methods, if matched to the contexts of the disaster and the needs of individuals, will improve efforts to prevent the development of PTSD and other trauma-related problems in survivors of disaster or terrorist events. First, the similarities between models of care underlying both disaster mental health services and cognitive-behavioral therapies are described. Second, examples of prior cognitive-behavioral therapy-informed work with persons exposed to disaster and terrorism are provided, potential cognitive-behavioral therapy applications to disaster and terrorism are explored, and implications of cognitive-behavioral therapy for common challenges in disaster mental health is discussed. Finally, steps that can be taken to integrate cognitive-behavioral therapy into disaster mental health are outlined. The aim is to prompt disaster mental health agencies and workers to consider using cognitive-behavioral therapy to improve services and training, and to motivate cognitive-behavioral researchers and practitioners to develop and support disaster mental health response.

Keywords

cognitive-behavioral therapydisaster mental healthdisaster response planningimmediate responsepost-traumatic stress disorderpsychotherapy integrationterrorismtrauma
Type
Comprehensive Review
Information
Prehospital and Disaster Medicine , Volume 23 , Issue 5 , October 2008 , pp. 397 - 410
Copyright
Copyright © World Association for Disaster and Emergency Medicine 2008

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1.McNally, R, RA, Bryant, Ehlers, A: Does early psychological intervention promote recovery form posttraumatic stress? Psychological Science in the Public Interest 2003;4:45–79.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
2.National Institute of Mental Health: Mental Health and Mass Violence: Evidenced-Based Early Psychological Intervention for Victims/Survivors of Mass Violence. AWorkshop to Reach Consensus on Best Practices. Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 2002.Google Scholar
3.Cao, H, AC, McFarlane, Klimidis, S: Prevalence of psychiatric disorders following the 1998 Yun Nan (China) earthquake: The first 5-month period. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol 2003;38:204–212.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
4.Galea, S, Ahern, J, Resnick, H, et al. : Psychological sequelae of the September 11 terrorist attacks in New York City. N Engl J Med 2002;346:982–987.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
5.Kuo, C, HS, Tang, CJ, Tsay, et al. : Prevalence of psychiatric disorders among bereaved survivors of a disastrous earthquake in Taiwan. Psychiatr Serv 2003;54:249–251.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
6.Breslau, N, GC, Davus, EL, Peterson, LR, Schultz: Psychiatric sequelae of posttraumatic stress disorder in women. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1997;54:81–87.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
7.Breslau, N, GC, Davis, LR, Schultz: Posttraumatic stress disorder and the incidence of nicotine, alcohol, and other drug disorders in persons who have experienced trauma. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2003;60:289–294.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
8.EA, Walker, Keaton, W, Russo, J, et al. : Health care costs associated with posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms in women. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2003;60:369–374.Google Scholar
9.National Child Traumatic Stress Network and National Center for PTSD: Psychological First Aid: Field Operations Guide. Available at http://www.ncptsd.va.gov/ncmain/ncdocs/manuals/nc_manual_psyfirstaid.html.Google Scholar
10.BH, Young, JD, Ford, JI, Ruzek, et al. : Disaster Mental Health Services: A Guidebook for Clinicians and Administrators. Palo Alto: Department of Veterans Affairs, National Center for PTSD, Education and Clinical Laboratory, VA Palo Alto Health Care System, 1998.Google Scholar
11.DH, Barlow: Psychological treatments. Am Psych 2004;59:869–878.Google Scholar
12.O'Donohue, W: Conditioning and Third-Generation Behavior Therapy. In: O'Donohue, W (ed): Learning and Behavior Therapy. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1998, pp 1–14.Google Scholar
13.SC, Hayes, WC, Follette, VF, Follette: Behavior Therapy: A Contextual Approach. In: Gurman, AS, Messer, SB, (eds): Essential Psychotherapies:Theory and Practice. New York: Guilford, 1995, pp 128–181.Google Scholar
14.JI, Ruzek: Models of Early Intervention following Mass Violence and Other Trauma. In: Ritchie, EC, Watson, PJ, Friedman, MJ, (eds): Mental Health Intervention following Disasters and Mass Violence. New York: Guilford, 2006, pp 16–34.Google Scholar
15.AG, Harvey, RA, Bryant: The relationship between acute stress disorder and posttraumatic stress disorder: A prospective evaluation of motor vehicle accident survivors. J Consult Clin Psychol 1998;66:507–512.Google Scholar
16.BT, Litz, Williams, L, Wang, J, et al. : A therapist-assisted internet self-help program for traumatic stress. Prof Psychol Res Pr 2004;35:628–634.Google Scholar
17.RA, Bryant, AG, Harvey, ST, Dang, et al. : Treatment of acute stress disorder: A comparision of cognitive-behavioral therapy and supportive counseling. J Consult Clin Psychol 1998;66:862–866.Google Scholar
18.RA, Bryant, Sackville, T, ST, Dang, et al. : Treating acute stress disorder: An evaluation of cognitive behavior therapy and supportive counseling techniques. Am J Psychiatry 1999;156:1780–1786.Google Scholar
19.RA, Bryant, ML, Moulds, RDV, Nixon: Cognitive behaviour therapy of acute stress disorder: a four-year follow-up. Behavior Research and Therapy 2003;41:489–494.Google Scholar
20.RC, Kessler, Sonnega, A, Bromet, E, et al. : Posttraumatic stress disorder in the national comorbidity survey. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1995;52:1048–1060.Google Scholar
21.Kilpatrick, D, BE, Saunders, DW, Smith: Youth Victimization: Prevalence and Implications. National Institute of Justice: Research in Brief, 2003.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
22.HS, Resnick, DG, Kilpatrick, BS, Dansky, et al. : Prevalence of civilian trauma and posttraumatic stress disorder in a representative national sample of women. J Consult Clin Psychol 1993;61:984–991.Google Scholar
23.DG, Kilpatrick, KJ, Ruggiero,Acienrno, R, et al. : Violence and Risk of PTSD, Major Depression, Substance Abuse/Dependence, and Comorbidity: Results From the National Survey of Adolescents. J Consult Clin Psychol 2003:71(4):692–700.Google Scholar
24.American Psychiatric Association: Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. 4th ed. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association 1994.Google Scholar
25.VF, Follette, JI, Ruzek: Cognitive-Behavioral Therapies for Trauma. 2nd ed. New York: Guilford, 2006.Google Scholar
26.TM, Keane, DH, Barlow: Posttraumatic Stress Disorder. In: Barlow, DH (ed): Anxiety and its Disorders: The Nature and Treatment of Anxiety and Panic. New York: Guilford, 2002, pp 418–453.Google Scholar
27.EB, Foa, EA, Meadows: Psychosocial Treatments for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder. In: Yehuda, R (ed): Psychological Trauma. Washington DC: American Psychiatric Press, 1998, pp 179–204.Google Scholar
28.EB, Foa, EA, Meadows: Psychosocial treatments for posttraumatic stress disorder: A critical review. Annu Rev Psychol 1997;48:449–480.Google Scholar
29.TM, Keane: Psychological and Behavioral Treatments of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder. In: Nathan, PE, Gorman, JM (eds): A Guide to Treatments that Work. New York: Oxford University Press, 1998, pp 398–407.Google Scholar
30.KJ, Ruggiero, TL, Morris, JR, Scotti: Treatment for children with posttraumatic stress disorder: Current status and future directions. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice 2001;8:210–227.Google Scholar
31.JA, Cohen, AP, Mannarino: A treatment outcome study for sexually abused preschool children: Initial findings. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1996;35:42–50.Google Scholar
32.JA, Cohen, AP, Mannarino: Interventions for sexually abused children: Initial treatment outcome findings. Child Maltreat 1998;3:17–22.Google Scholar
33.Deblinger, E, Lippman, J, Steer, R: Sexually abused children suffering posttraumatic stress symptoms: Initial treatment outcome findings. Child Maltreat 1996;1:310–321.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
34.Deblinger, E, LB, Stauffer, RA, Steer: Comparative efficacies of supportive and cognitive behavioral group therapies for young children who have been sexually abused and their nonoffending mothers. Child Maltreat 2001;6:332–343.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
35.AK, Goenjian, Karayan, I, RS, Pynoos, et al. : Outcome of psychotherapy among early adolescents after trauma.Am J Psychiatry 1997;154:536–542.Google Scholar
36.Kolko, D: Individual cognitive behavioral treatment and family therapy for physically abused children and their offending parents: A comparison of clinical outcomes. Child Maltreat 1996;1:322–342.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
37.BD, Stein, LH, Jaycox, SH, Kataoka, et al. : A mental health intervention for schoolchildren exposed to violence. JAMA 2003;290:603–611.Google Scholar
38.RJ, Urasano, Bell, C, Eth, S, et al. : Practice guidelines for the treatment of acute stress and posttraumatic stress disorder. Am J Psychiatry 2004;161(Suppl. 11):3–31.Google Scholar
39.EB, Foa, JRT, Davidson, Frances, A, et al. : Expert consensus treatment guidelines for posttraumatic stress disorder: A guide for patients and families. J Clin Psychiatry 1999;60(Suppl. 16):1–8.Google Scholar
40.EB, Foa, TM, Keane, MJ, Friedman: Effective Treatments for PTSD. 2000, New York: Guilford.Google Scholar
41.National Collaborating Centre for Mental Health: Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder: The Management of PTSD in Adults and Children in Primary and Secondary Care. London: Gaskell and the British Psychological Society, 2005.Google Scholar
42.BE, Saunders, L, Berliner, RF, Hanson, (eds): Child Physical and Sexual Abuse: Guidelines for Treatment(Final Report: January 15, 2003. Charleston: National Crime Victims Research and Treatment Center, 2003.Google Scholar
43.VA/DoD Clinical Guideline Working Group, VHA, Department of Veterans Affairs and Health Affairs, Department of Defense:Management of Post-Traumatic Stress.Washington, DC: Office of Quality and Performance, 2003. Publication 10Q-CPG/PTSD-04.Google Scholar
44.Somer, E, Tamir, E, Maguen, S, Litz, BT: Brief cognitive-behavioral phonebased intervention targeting anxiety about the threat of attack: A pilot study. Behav Res Ther 2005;43:669–679.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
45.Walser, RD, Hayes, SC: The effects of acceptance and suppression on thought and emotions: Analysis of a talk-aloud procedure in Association for Advancement of Behavior Therapy (AABT), Washington, DC: 19–22, November 1998.Google Scholar
46.Brown, PJ, Wolfe, J: Substance abuse and post-traumatic stress disorder comorbidity. Drug Alcohol Depend 1994;35(1):51–59.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
47.Najavits, LM, Weiss, RD, Shaw, SR: The link between substance abuse and posttraumatic stress disorder in women. A research review. Am J Addict 1997;6(4):273–83.Google ScholarPubMed
48.P, Ouimette, Brown, PJ (eds): Trauma and Substance abuse: Causes, Consequences, and Treatment of Comorbid Disorders.Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, 2003.Google Scholar
49., Stewart: Alcohol abuse in individuals exposed to trauma: A critical review. Psychol Bull 1996;120(1):83–112.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
50.Chilcoat, HD, Breslau, N: Investigations of causal pathways between PTSD and drug use disorders. Addict Behav 1998;23:827–824.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
51.Kulka, RA: Trauma and the Vietnam War Generation: Report of Findings from the National Veterans Readjustment Study. New York: Brunner/Mazel, 1990.Google Scholar
52.Carroll, KM: Relapse Prevention as a Psychosocial Treatment: A Review of Controlled Clinical Trials. In: Marlatt, AG, Bos, G.R.Vanden (eds): Addictive Behaviors: Readings on Etiology, Prevention, and Treatment.Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, 1996, pp 697–717.Google Scholar
53.Najavits, LM: Seeking Safety: A Treatment Manual for PTSD and Substance Abuse. New York: Press, 2002.Google Scholar
54.Triffleman, E, Carroll, K, Kellogg, S: Substance dependence posttraumatic stress disorder therapy: An integrated cognitive-behavioral approach. J Subst Abuse Treat 1999;17:3–14.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
55.Bien, T, Miller, WR, Tonigan, JS: Brief interventions for alcohol problems: A review. Addiction 1993;88:315–335.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
56.Gentilello, LM, Rivara, FP, Donovan, DM, et al. : Alcohol interventions in a trauma center as a means of reducing the risk of injury recurrence. Ann Surg 1999;230:473–483.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
57.Brady, KT, Killeen, TK, Brewerton, T, Lucerini, S: Comorbidity of psychiatric disorders and posttraumatic stress disorder. J Clin Psychiatry 2000;61:22–32.Google ScholarPubMed
58.Blanchard, EB, Buckley, TC, Hickling, EJ, Taylor, AE: Posttraumatic stress disorder and comorbid major depression: Is the correlation an illusion. J Anxiety Disord 1998;12:21–37.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
59.Dow, B, Kline, N: Antidepressant treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder and major depression in veterans. Ann Clin Psychiatry 1997;9:1–5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
60.Shalev, AY, Sahar, T, Freedman, S, et al. : A prospective study of heart rate response following trauma and the subsequent development of posttraumatic stress disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1998;55:553–559.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
61.Hollon, SD, Shelton, RC: Treatment guidelines for major depressive disorder. Behav Ther 2001;32:235–258.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
62.Lewinsohn, PM: A behavioral Approach to Depression, In: Friedman, RM, Katz, MM (eds): The Psychology of Depression: Contemporary Theory and Research. New York:Wiley, 1974.Google Scholar
63.Martell, CR, Addis, ME, Jacobson, NS: Depression in Context: Strategies for Guided Action. New York: Norton, 2001.Google Scholar
64.Lejuez, CW, Hopko, DR, Hopko, SD: A brief behavioral activation treatment for depression. Cogn Behav Pract 2001;8:164–175.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
65.Beck, AT, Rush, AJ, Shaw, BF, et al. : Cognitive Therapy of Depression.New York: Guilford 1979.Google Scholar
66.Greenberger, D, Padesky, CA: Mind over Mood: Change how You Feel by Changing the Way You Think. New. New York: Guilford, 1995.Google Scholar
67.Litz, BT, Gray, MJ: Early Intervention for Trauma in Adults: A Framework for First Aid and Secondary Prevention. In: Litz, BT (ed):Early Intervention for Trauma and Traumatic Loss. Guilford: New York, 2004, pp 87–111.Google Scholar
68.Andrews, B, Brewin, R, Rose, S, Kirk, M: Predicting PTSD symptoms in victims of violent crime: the role of shame, anger, and childhood abuse. J Abnorm Psychol 2000;109:69–73.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
69.Chemtob, CM, Hamada, CM, Hamada, RS, et al. : Anger, impulsivity, and anger control in combat-related PTSD. J Consult Clin Psychol 1994;62:827–832.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
70.Jenkins, SR: Coping and social support among emergency dispatchers: Hurricane Andrew. J Soc Behav Pers 1997;12:201–216.Google Scholar
71.Riggs, DS, Danvu, CV, Gershuny, BS, et al. : Anger and posttraumatic stress disorder in female crime victims. J Trauma Stress 1992;5:613–625. ???Google Scholar
72.Saunders, DG: Posttraumatic stress systoms profiles of battered women: A comparison of survivors in two settings. Violence Vict 1994;9:31–44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
73.Sutker, PB, Corrigan, SA, , Sundgaard-Riise, et al. : Exposure to war trauma warrelated PTSD, and psychological impact of subsequent hurricane.J Psychopathol Behav Assess 2002;24:25–37.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
74.Novaco, RW: Anger as a Clinical and Social Problem. In: Blanchard, R, Blanchard, C (eds): Advances in the Study of Aggression. New York: Academic, 1986, pp 1–67.Google Scholar
75.Beckham, JC, Moore, SD, Reynolds, V: Interpersonal hostility and violence in Vietnam veterans with chronic posttraumatic stress disorder. A review of theoretical models and empirical evidence. Aggression Viol Beh 2000;5:451–466.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
76.Byrne, CA, Riggs, DS: The cycle of trauma: relationship in male veterns with symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder. Violence Vict 1996;11:213–225.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
77.Chemtob, CM, Novaco, RW, Hamada, RS, Gross, DM: Cognitive-behavioral treatment for severe anger in combat-related posttraumatic stress disorder.J Consult Clin Psychol 1997;65:184–189.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
78.Cahill, SP, Rauch, SAM, Hembree, EA, et al. : Effectiveness of cognitive-behavioral treatments for PTSD on anger. Cogn Behav Ther 2003;17:113–131.Google Scholar
79.Novaco, RW, Chemtob, CM: Anger and Trauma: Conceptualization, Assessment, Therapies for Trauma. In: VM, Follette, Ruzek, JI, Abueg, FR (eds): Cognitive-Behavioral Therapies for Trauma.New York: Guilford, 1998, pp 162–190.Google Scholar
80.Novaco, RW: Anger Control: The Development and Evaluation of an Experimental Treatment. Lexington: D.C. Health, 1975.Google Scholar
81.Novaco, RW: A stress inoculation approach to anger management in the training of law enforcement officers.Am J Community Psychol 1977;5:327–346.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
82.Bernstein, DA, Borkovec, TD: Progressive Relaxation Training: A Manual for the Helping Professions. Champaign: Research Press, 1973.Google Scholar
83.Poppen, R: Behavioral Relaxation Training and Assessment. New York: Pergamon, 1998.Google Scholar
84.Deffenbacher, JL: Cognitive-Behavioral Approaches to Anger Reduction. In: Dobson, KS, Craig, KD (eds): Advances in Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy. Thousand Oaks: Sage, 1996.Google Scholar
85.Christensen, A, Jacobson, NS: Reconcilable Differences. New York: Guilford, 2000.Google Scholar
86.Duckworth, MP: Assertiveness Skills and the Management of Related Factors. In: W, O'Donohue, Fisher, JE, Hayes, SC (eds): Cognitive-Behavior Therapy: Applying Empirically Supported Techniques in your Practice. Hoboken: Wiley, 2003, pp 16–22.Google Scholar
87.D'Zurilla, TJ, Nezu, AM: Problem-Solving Therapy: A Social Competence Approach to Clinical Intervention. New York: Springer, 1999.Google Scholar
88.Lloyd, A: Urge Surfing. In: W, O'Donohue, Fisher, JE, Hayes, SC (eds): Cognitive-Behavior Therapy: Applying Empirically Supported Techniques in your Practice. Hoboken:Wiley, 2003 pp 415–455.Google Scholar
89.Ofman, PS, Mastria, MA: Mental health response to terrorism: The World Trade Center bombing. J Mental Health Counseling 1996;17:312.Google Scholar
90.Young, BH, Ruzek, JI, Ford, JD: Cognitive-Behavioral Group Treatment for Disaster-Related PTSD. In: BH, Young, Blake, DD (eds): Group Treatments for Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder. Philadelphia: Brunner/Mazel, 1999, pp 149–200.Google Scholar
91.Stubenbort, K, Donnelly, GR, Cohen, JA: Cognitive-behavioral group therapy for bereaved adults and children following an air disaster. Group Dyn 2001;5:261–276.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
92.Brown, EJ, Pearlman, MY, Goodman, RF: Facing fears and sadness: Cognitivebehavioral therapy for childhood traumatic grief. Harv Rev Psychiatry 2004;12:187–198.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
93.Cohen, JA, Deblinger, E, Mannarino, AP, Steer, RA: A multisite, randomized controlled trial for children with sexual abuse-related PTSD symptoms. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2004;43:393–402.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
94.Kaplan, SJ, Pelcovitz, D, Fornari, V: The treatment of children impacted by the World Trade Center attack. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment, and Trauma 2005;10:455–466.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
95.Basoglu, M, Livanou, M, Salcioglu, E, Kalender, D: A brief behavioral treatment of chronic post-traumatic stress disorder in earthquake survivors: Results from an open trial. Psychol Med 2003;33:647–654.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
96.Basoglu, M, Salcioglu, E, Livanou, M, et al. : Single-session behavioral treatment of earthquake-related posttraumatic stress disorder: a randomized waiting list controlled trial. J Traumatic Stress 2005;18:1–11.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
97.Gillespie, K, Duffy, M, Hackmann, A, Clark, DM: Community based cognitive therapy in the treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder following the Omagh bomb. Behav Res Ther 2002;40:345–357.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
98.Levitt, JT, Davis, L, Miranda, R, et al. : Bringing a manualized treatment for PTSD to the community in the aftermath of 9/11. Presented at Association for Advancement of Behavior Therapy, 2003. Boston, Massachusetts.Google Scholar
99.Neria, Y, Suh, EJ, Marshall, RD: The Professional Response to the Aftermath of September 11, 2001 in New York City: Lessons Learned from Treating Victims of the World Trade Center Attacks. In: B, Litz (ed): Early Interventions for Trauma and Traumatic Loss.New York: Guilford Press, 2003.Google Scholar
100.Hamblen, J, Gibson, LE, Mueser, K, et al. : The National Center for PTSD's Brief Intervention for Continuing Postdisaster Distress. White River Junction, Vermont: National Center for PTSD, 2003.Google Scholar
101.Hamblen, JL, Gibson, LE, Mueser, KT, Norris, FH: Cognitive behavioral therapy for prolonged post disaster distress. J Clin Psycho 2006;62:1043–1052.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
102.Norris, FH, Hamblem, JL, Watson, PJ, et al. : Toward Understanding and Creating Systems of Postdisaster Care: Findings and Recommendations from a Case Study of New York;s Response to the World Trade Center Disaster. In: CE, Ritchie, Watson, PJ, Friedman, MJ (eds): Mental Health Intervention following Disasters and Mass Violence. New York: Guilford, 2006.Google Scholar
103.Difede, J, et al. : Evaluation and treatment of firefighters and utility workers following the World Trade Center Attack. 2002.Google Scholar
104.Silva, RR, Cloitre, M, Davis, L, et al. : Early intervention with traumatized children. Psychiatr Quarterly 2003;74:333–347.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
105.Foa, EB, Bo, R: Treating the Trauma of Rape: Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy for PTSD. New York: Guilford, 1998.Google Scholar
106.Leonard, LM, Follette, VF, Compton, JS: A Principle-Based Intervention for Couples Affected by Trauma. In: VW, Follette, Ruzek, JI (eds): Cognitive- Behavioral Therapies for Trauma. New York: Guilford, 2006, pp 362–387.Google Scholar
107.Monson, CM, Schnurr, PP, Stevens, SP, Guthrie, KA: Cognitive-behavioral couple's treatment for posttraumatic stress disorder: Initial findings. J Trauma Stress 2004;17:341–344.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
108.Deblinger, E, Thakkar-Kolar, R, Ryan, E: Trauma in Childhood. In: VF, Follette, Ruzek, JI (eds): Cognitive-Behavioral Therapies for Trauma. New York: Guilford, 2006.Google Scholar
109.Brewin, CR, Rose, S, Andrews, B, et al. : Brief screening instrument for posttraumatic stress disorder. Br J Psychiatry 2002;181:158–162.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
110.Smith, DW, Kilpatrick, DG, Falsetti, SA, et al. : Postterrorism services for victims and surviving family members: Lessons from Pan Am 103. Cogn Behav Pract 2002;9: 280–286.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
111.Miller, WR, Rollnick, S: Motivational Interviewing: Preparing People for Change. 2nd ed. New York: Guilford, 2001.Google Scholar
112.Mitchell, JT: When disaster strikes: The critical incident stress debriefing process. JEMS 1983 18:36–49.Google Scholar
113.Raphael, B, Wilson, JP: Psychological Debriefing: Theory, Practice and Evidence. Cambridge: Cambridge University, 2000.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
114.Katon, W, Von Korff, M, Lin, E: Collaborative management to achieve depression treatment guidelines. J Clin Psychiatry 1997;58(Suppl. 1):20–23.Google ScholarPubMed
115.Craske, MG, Golinelli, D, Stein, MB: Does the addition of cognitive behavioral therapy improve panic disorder treatment outcome relative to medication alone in the primary-care setting? Psychol Med 2005;35:1645–1654.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
116.Fleming, MF: Screening and brief intervention in primary care settings. Alcohol Res Health 2004;28:57–62.Google ScholarPubMed
117.Resick, HS, Acierno, R, Holmes, M, et al. : Prevention of post-rape psychopathology: Preliminary findings of a controlled acute rape treatment study. J Anxiety Disord 1999;13:359–370.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
118.Prins, A, Ouimetter, P, Kimerling, R, et al. : The primary care PTSD screen (PC-PTSD): Development and operating characteristics. Primary Care Psychiatry 2003;9(1):9–4.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
119.Lange, A, van de Ven, JP, Schrieken, B, Emmelkamp, PM: Interapy: treatment of posttraumatic stress through the Internet: A controlled trial. J Behav Ther Exp Psychiatry 2001;32:73–90.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
120.Lange, A, Riedijk, D, Hudcovicova, M, et al. : Interapy: a controlled randomized trial of the standardized treatment of posttraumatic stress through the Internet. J Consult Clin Psychol 2003;71:901–909.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
121.Ruggiero, KJ, Resnick, HS, Acierno, R, et al. : Internet-based intervention for mental health and substance use problems in disaster-affected populations: A pilot feasibility study. Behav Ther 2006;37:190–205.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
122.Rosen, CS, Young, HE, Norris, FH: On a Road paved with Good Intentions, You still Need a Compass: Monitoring and Evaluating Disaster Mental Health Services. In: EC, Ritchie, Watson, PJ, Friedman, MJ (eds): Mental Health Intervention following Disasters and Mass Violence.New York:Guilford, 2006, pp 206–223.Google Scholar
123.Becker, CB, Zayfert, C., Anderson, E: A survey of psychologists' attitudes toward and utilization of exposure therapy for PTSD. Behav Res Ther 2004;42:277–292.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
124.Litz, BT, Gibson, LE: Conducting Research on Mental Health Interventions. In: EC, Ritchie, Watson, PJ, Friedman, MJ (eds): Mental Health Intervention following Disasters and Mass Violence.New York: Guilford, 2006, pp 206–223.Google Scholar
125.Ruzek, JI, et al. : Psychological first aid. J Mental Health Counseling, In press.Google Scholar