Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-fbnjt Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-02T13:22:37.462Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

A REPUBLICAN DILEMMA: CITY OR STATE? OR, THE CONCRETE REVOLUTION REVISITED

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  24 July 2017

Get access

Abstract

In a well-known passage, the Greek historian Polybius, writing in the mid-second century BC, attributes Rome's success as a republic to a perfect balance of power between its constituent elements, army, senate and people (Histories 6.11); and indeed, the Republic's long survival was an achievement worth explaining. On another note, over a century later, Livy remarked how Republican Rome, with its rambling street plan and miscellany of buildings, compared unfavourably with the magnificent royal cities of the eastern Mediterranean; he put this down to hasty rebuilding after a great Gallic conflagration around 390 BC. Few scholars now accept his explanation. A handful of scholars argue for underlying rationales, usually when setting up the early city as a foil for its transformation under Augustus and subsequent emperors, and their conclusions tend towards characterizing the city's design as an unintended corollary to the annual turnover of magistrates. This article, likewise, argues for the role of government in the city's appearance; but it contends that the state of Republican urbanism was deliberate. A response, of sorts, to both ancient authors' observations, it addresses how provisions to ensure equilibrium in one of the Republic's components, the senatorial class, in the interests of preserving the res publica, came at a vital cost to the city's architectural evolution. These provisions took the form of intentional constraints (on time and money), to prevent élite Romans from building like, and thus presenting themselves as, Mediterranean monarchs. Painting with a broad chronological stroke, it traces the tension between the Roman Republic in its ideal state and the physical city, exploring the strategies élite Romans developed to work within the constraints. Only when unforeseen factors weakened the state's power to self-regulate could the built city flourish and, in doing so, further diminish the state. Many of these factors — such as increased wealth in the second century and the first-century preponderance of special commands — are known; to these, this article argues, should be added the development of concrete.

Attorno alla metà del II sec. a.C., lo storico greco Polibio attribuisce in un noto passo il successo di Roma come Repubblica al perfetto bilanciamento del potere tra i suoi elementi costitutivi: l'esercito, il senato e il popolo (Storie 6.11). Ed in effetti, la lunga durata della Repubblica era un risultato che andava spiegato. In un altro passo, successivo di oltre un secolo, Livio osserva invece come la Roma repubblicana con il suo assetto stradale incoerente e la sua mescolanza di edifici, uscisse sfavorita da un paragone con le magnifiche città regali del Mediterraneo orientale. Lo storico riconduceva questa situazione alla frettolosa ricostruzione seguita all'incendio gallico del 390 a.C. Alcuni studiosi sostengono che in questo assetto siano da riconoscere scelte razionali, ponendo generalmente la città più antica come elemento di confronto con la sua ‘trasformazione’ sotto il regno di Augusto e dei suoi successori. Le loro conclusioni tendono pertanto a caratterizzare la struttura della città come una sorta di corollario non intenzionale del turnover annuale dei magistrati. Il presente articolo sostiene concorda nel sostenere la rilevanza del ruolo giocato dal governo nell'aspetto della città; ma asserisce per contro come il tipo di urbanistica della Roma repubblicana fosse una scelta deliberata. Quasi a mo’ di risposta alle osservazioni di entrambi gli autori antichi, si mette in evidenza come i provvedimenti volti ad assicurare l'equilibrio di uno degli elementi costitutivi della Repubblica – l'ordine senatorio – nell'interesse della conservazione della res publica abbiano avuto come contropartita il tipo di evoluzione architettonica della città. Nel dettaglio queste misure hanno preso la forma di vincoli intenzionali (in termini di tempo e di risorse economiche), per evitare che i membri dell’élite potessero edificare come monarchi mediterranei, presentandosi conseguentemente come tali. L'adozione di questo approccio su di un ampio lasso cronologico mette in evidenza la tensione tra la Repubblica Romana nella sua concezione ideale e la città reale, esplorando le strategie che l’èlite romana ha sviluppato per lavorare entro specifiche limitazioni. Ne consegue che solamente quando fattori imprevisti indebolirono il potere di auto-regolamentazione dello Stato, la città poté fiorire dal punto di vista urbanistico/architettonico, sminuendo però in questo modo lo Stato stesso. Molti di questi fattori sono noti. È il caso, ad esempio, dell'incremento della ricchezza nel II sec. a.C. e della prevalenza di special commission nel I sec. a.C. E in particolare a questi fenomeni, secondo la lettura proposta in questo articolo, dovrebbe essere attribuito lo sviluppo dell'opera cementizia.

Type
Articles
Copyright
Copyright © British School at Rome 2017 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

1

This article began as a paper presented at the Theoretical Roman Archaeology Conference in Leicester in 2015. I am grateful to Matthew Mandich for the invitation to participate and to Andrew Wilson for further discussion. Thanks also to Mark Bradley, Seth Bernard and an anonymous reviewer. For abbreviations of ancient sources, see the Oxford Classical Dictionary.

References

REFERENCES

Aberson, M. (1994) Temples votifs et butin de guerre dans la Rome républicaine. Rome, Institut Suisse de Rome.Google Scholar
Aldrete, G.S. (2007) Floods of the Tiber in Ancient Rome. Baltimore, MD, Johns Hopkins University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Amici, C.M. (1991) Il Foro di Cesare. Florence, Olschki.Google Scholar
Arata, F.P. and Felice, E. (2011) Porticus Aemilia, navalia o horrea? Ancora sui frammenti 23 e 24 b–d della Forma Urbis. Archeologia Classica 62: 127–53.Google Scholar
Ashby, T. (1935) The Aqueducts of Ancient Rome. Oxford, The Clarendon Press.Google Scholar
Astin, A.E. (1978) Cato the Censor. Oxford, Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Astin, A.E. (1985) Censorships in the Late Republic. Historia 34: 175–90.Google Scholar
Baltard, V. (1837) Mémoire explicatif de la restoration du Théâtre de Pompée. Paris, École Nationale Supérieure des Beaux-Arts.Google Scholar
Barbera, M. and Cianetta, M.M. (2008) Archeologia a Roma Termini. Milan, Electa.Google Scholar
Bariviera, C. (2013) Regione XI. Circus Maximus. In Carandini, A. and Carafa, P. (eds) Atlante di Roma 1 : 421–45. Milan, Electa.Google Scholar
Bastien, J.-L. (2007) Le triomphe romain et son utilisation politique à Rome aux trois derniers siècles de la République. Rome, École Française de Rome.Google Scholar
Beard, M., North, J.A. and Price, S. (1998) Religions of Rome. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Bernard, S. (2010) Pentelic marble in architecture at Rome and the Republican marble trade. Journal of Roman Archaeology 23: 3554.Google Scholar
Bernard, S. (2012a) Continuing the debate on Rome's earliest circuit walls. Papers of the British School at Rome 80: 144.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bernard, S. (2012b) Men at Work: Public Construction, Labor, and Society at Middle Republican Rome (390–168 B.C.). University of Pennsylvania, Ph.D. thesis.Google Scholar
Bernard, S. (2013) Politics and public construction in Republican Rome. Review of E.M. Steinby, Edilizia pubblica e potere publico nella Roma repubblicana . Journal of Roman Archaeology 26: 513–19.Google Scholar
Blake, M.E. (1947) Ancient Roman Construction in Italy from the Prehistoric Period to Augustus. Washington DC, Carnegie Institution.Google Scholar
Boatwright, M.T. (1998) Luxuriant gardens and extravagant women: the horti of Rome between Republic and Empire. In Cima, M. and Rocca, E. La (eds), Horti romani: atti del convegno internazionale: Roma, 4–6 maggio 1995: 7182. Rome, L'Erma di Bretschneider.Google Scholar
Boni, G. (1900) Roma: nuove scoperte nella città e nel suburbio. Notizie degli Scavi di Antichità: 291340.Google Scholar
Boyd, M.J. (1953) The Porticus of Metellus and Octavia and their two temples. Papers of the British School at Rome 21: 152–9.Google Scholar
Cadoux, T.J. (2008) The Roman Carcer and its adjuncts. Greece and Rome 55: 202–21.Google Scholar
Calabi Limentani, I. (1982) I fornices di Stertinio e di Scipione nel racconto di Livio (XXXIII, 27, 1–5 e XXXVII, 3, 7). In Sordi, M. (ed.), Politica e religione nel primo scontro tra Roma e l'oriente 8 : 123–35. Milan, Contributi dell'Istituto di storia antica.Google Scholar
Canina, L. (1845) Esposizione storica e topografica del Foro Romano e sue adiacenze. Rome, A. Forni.Google Scholar
Carettoni, G. (1948) Esplorazioni della Basilica Emilia. Notizie degli Scavi di Antichità: 111–28.Google Scholar
Carettoni, G. and Fabbrini, L. (1961) Esplorazioni sotto la Basilica Giulia al Foro Romano. Atti dell'Accademia nazionale dei Lincei. Rendiconti 16: 5360.Google Scholar
Carl, P., Kemp, B. and Laurence, R. (2000) Were cities built as images? Cambridge Archaeological Journal 10: 327–65Google Scholar
Castagnoli, F. (1961) Review of Carettoni et al., La pianta marmorea di Roma antica. Gnomon 33: 607–10.Google Scholar
Catalano, P., Fortini, P. and Nanni, A. (2001) Area del Carcer-Tullianum. Nuove scoperte. In Filippi, F. (ed.), Archeologia e giubileo: gli interventi a Roma e nel Lazio nel Piano per il Grande Giubileo del 2000: 192–6. Naples, Electa.Google Scholar
Champlin, E. (2003) Agamemnon at Rome: Roman dynasts and Greek heroes. In Braund, D. and Gill, C. (eds), Myth, History and Culture in Republican Rome: Studies in Honour of T.P. Wiseman: 295319. Exeter, University of Exeter Press.Google Scholar
Cifani, G. (2013) Le Mure Serviane. In Carandini, A. and Carafa, P. (eds), Atlante di Roma 1 : 81–4. Milan, Electa.Google Scholar
Coarelli, F. (1968) La porta trionfale e la via dei trionfi. Dialoghi di Archeologia 2: 55103.Google Scholar
Coarelli, F. (1981) Topografia e storia. In Kajanto, I. (ed.), L'area sacra di Largo Argentina I: 951. Rome, Studi e Materiali dei Musei e Monumenti di Roma.Google Scholar
Coarelli, F. (1983) Il Foro Romano. Periodo arcaico. Rome, Edizioni Quasar.Google Scholar
Coarelli, F. (1985) Il Foro Romano. Periodo repubblicano e augusteo. Rome, Edizioni Quasar.Google Scholar
Coarelli, F. (1987) I santuari del Lazio in età repubblicana. Rome, La Nuova Italia Scientifica.Google Scholar
Coarelli, F. (1988a) Il Sepolcro degli Scipioni a Roma. Rome, Fratelli Palomba Editori.Google Scholar
Coarelli, F. (1988b) Il Foro Boario dalle origini alla fine della Repubblica. Rome, Edizioni Quasar.Google Scholar
Coarelli, F. (1994) Moneta. Le officine della zecca di Roma tra Repubblica e Impero. Annali dell'Istituto Italiano di Numismatica 38–41: 2366.Google Scholar
Coarelli, F. (1997) Il Campo Marzio. Dalle origini alla fine della Repubblica. Rome, Edizioni Quasar.Google Scholar
Coarelli, F. (2012) Palatium: il Palatino dalle origini all'impero. Rome, Edizioni Quasar.Google Scholar
Coarelli, F. (2014) Collis: il Quirinale e il Viminale nell'antichità. Rome, Edizioni Quasar.Google Scholar
Coleman, K.M. (1993) Launching into history: aquatic displays in the early Empire. Journal of Roman Studies 83: 4874.Google Scholar
Conticello de’ Spagnolis, M. (1986) Nuove osservazioni sull'area del tempio dei Dioscuri in circo Flaminio. Bullettino della Commissione Archeologica Comunale di Roma 91: 91–6.Google Scholar
Cornell, T.J. (1995) The Beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c. 1000–264 BC). London/New York, Routledge.Google Scholar
Corso, A. (1988) Plinio, Storia Naturale, 36. Turin, Giulio Einaudi editore.Google Scholar
Cozza, L. and Tucci, P.L. (2006) Navalia. Archeologia Classica 57: 175201.Google Scholar
Crawford, M. (1974) Roman Republican Coinage. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Crozzoli Aite, L. (1981) I tre templi del Foro Olitorio. Atti della Pontificia Accademia Romana di Archeologia: Memorie, 13. Vatican City.Google Scholar
Dauster, M. (2003) Roman Republican sumptuary legislation, 182–102. In Deroux, C. (ed.), Studies in Latin Literature and Roman History: 6593. Brussels, Latomus.Google Scholar
David, J.-M. (1983) Le tribunal dans la basilique: évolution fonctionelle et symbolique de la République à l'Empire. In Architecture et société: de l'archaïsme grec à la fin de la Républic romaine: actes du colloque international organisé par le Centre national de la recherche scientifique et l'École française de Rome (Rome 2–4 décembre 1980): 219–45. Rome, École Française de Rome.Google Scholar
Davies, P.J.E. (2012a) On the introduction of stone architraves in Republican temples in Rome. In Thomas, M. and Meyers, G. (eds), Monumentality in Etruscan and Early Roman Architecture: Ideology and Innovation: 139–65. Austin, TX, University of Texas Press.Google Scholar
Davies, P.J.E. (2012b) Pollution, propriety and urbanism in Republican Rome. In Bradley, M. (ed.), Pollution and Propriety: Dirt, Disease and Hygiene in Rome from Antiquity to Modernity: 6780. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Davies, P.J.E. (2013) The archaeology of mid-Republican Rome: the emergence of a Mediterranean capital. In Evans, J. DeRose (ed.), Blackwell Companion to Roman Republican Archaeology: 440–58. Oxford, Blackwell Publishing.Google Scholar
Davies, P.J.E. (2014) Rome and her neighbors: Greek building practices in Republican Rome. In Ulrich, R.B. and Quenomeon, C. (eds), Blackwell Companion to Roman Architecture: 2744. Oxford, Wiley–Blackwell.Google Scholar
Davies, P.J.E. (Forthcoming 2017) Architecture and Politics in Republican Rome. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
De Kleijn, G. (2001) The Water Supply of Ancient Rome: City Area, Water, and Population. Amsterdam, Gieben.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
DeLaine, J. (2001) Bricks and mortar: exploring the economics of building techniques at Rome and Ostia. In Mattingly, D.J. and Salmon, J. (eds), Economies beyond Agriculture in the Classical World: 230–68. London, Routledge.Google Scholar
Delbrück, R. (1907–12) Hellenistische Bauten in Latium. Strasbourg, K.J. Trübner.Google Scholar
Delfino, A. (2008) Il foro di Cesare nella fase Cesariana e augustea. In Balsamo, C. (ed.), Giulio Cesare: l'uomo, le imprese, il mito: 52–4. Milan, Silvana Editoriale.Google Scholar
Delfino, A. (2014) Forum Iulium. L'area del Foro di Cesare alla luce delle campagne di scavo 2005–2008. Le fasi arcaica, repubblicana e cesariana-augustea. Oxford, Archaeopress.Google Scholar
De Maria, S. (1988) Gli archi onorari di Roma e dell'Italia romana. Rome, L'Erma di Bretschneider.Google Scholar
Di Giacomo, G. (2007) Il Carcer-Tullianum nel Foro Romano. Forma Urbis 12: 21–6.Google Scholar
Dix, T.K. (1994) ‘Public libraries’ in Ancient Rome: ideology and reality. Libraries and Culture 29: 282–96.Google Scholar
Donati, A. (2008) Cesare e il diritto. In Gentili, G. (ed.), Giulio Cesare: l'uomo, le imprese, il mito: 3841. Milan, Silvana Editoriali.Google Scholar
Elkins, N. (2015) Monuments in Miniature: Architecture on Roman Coinage. New York, The American Numismatic Society.Google Scholar
Erasmo, M. (2007) Pompey's self-representation at the gala opening of his theatre. Paper delivered at ‘The Theater of Pompey: Staging the Self through Roman Architecture’, University of Georgia, Athens.Google Scholar
Erickson, B. and Lloyd-Jones, T. (1997) Experiments with settlement aggregation models. Experiments and Planning B: Planning and Design 24: 903–28.Google Scholar
Evans, H.B. (1994) Water Distribution in Ancient Rome: The Evidence of Frontinus. Ann Arbor, MI, University of Michigan Press.Google Scholar
Fabretti, G. (1680) De aquis et aquaeductibus veteris Romae. Rome, Apud Natalem Barbiellini in Foro Pasquini.Google Scholar
Fahlbusch, H. (1977) The development of the Pergamon water supply between 200 B.C. and 300 A.D. Proceedings of the 17th Congress of the International Association of Hydraulic Research (IAHR): 758–62. Baden-Baden, International Association of Hydraulic Research.Google Scholar
Favro, D. (1998) The Urban Image of Augustan Rome. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Filippi, F., Porcari, B., Von Hesberg, H. et al. (2015) Teatro di Pompeo. Nuove ricerche. In Filippi, F. (ed.), Campo Marzio. Nuove ricerche. Atti del seminario di studi sul Campo Marzio: 323–68. Rome, Edizioni Quasar.Google Scholar
Fiorani, G. (1968) Problemi architettonici del Foro di Cesare. Studi di Topografia Romana 5: 91104.Google Scholar
Forsythe, G. (1994) Review of Erich Gruen, Culture and National Identity in Republican Rome (1992). Bryn Mawr Classical Review 94.02.11.Google Scholar
Forsythe, G. (2005) A Critical History of Early Rome. Berkeley, CA, University of California Press.Google Scholar
Fortini, P. (1998) Carcer Tullianum. Il Carcere Mamertino al Foro Romano. Milan, Electa.Google Scholar
Frank, T. (1924) Roman Buildings of the Republic: An Attempt to Date them from their Materials. Rome, American Academy in Rome.Google Scholar
Freyberger, K.S. (2009) Das Forum Romanum. Spiegel des Stadtgeschichte des antiken Rom. Mainz am Rhein, Philipp von Zabern.Google Scholar
Freyberger, K.S. and Ertel, C. (2007) Neue Forschung zur Basilica Aemilia auf dem Forum Romanum. Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts, Römische Abteilung 113: 493552.Google Scholar
Frézouls, E. (1983) La construction du theatrum lapideum et son contexte politique. In Théâtre et spectacles dans l'antiquité (Actes du colloque de Strasbourg 5–7 nov. 1981): 193214. Leiden, E.J. Brill.Google Scholar
Fuchs, G. (1956) Zur Baugeschichte der Basilica Aemilia in republikanischer Zeit. Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts, Römische Abteilung 63: 1425.Google Scholar
Gagliardo, M.C. and Packer, J.E. (2006) A new look at Pompey's Theater: history, documentation, and recent excavation. American Journal of Archaeology 110(1): 93122.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Galinsky, G.K. (1969) Aeneas, Sicily, and Rome. Princeton, NJ, Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Garbrecht, G. (1979) L'alimentation en eau de Pergame. Dossiers de l'Archéologie 38: 2633.Google Scholar
Garbrecht, G. (1987) Die Wasserversorgung des antiken Pergamon. In Garbrecht, G. (ed.), Die Wasserversorgung antiker Städte: Mensch und Wassr, Mitteleuropa, Thermen, Baumaterialen, Hygiene, 2 : 1347. Mainz, Philipp von Zabern.Google Scholar
Gast, K. (1965) Die zensorischen Bauberichte bei Livius und die römischen Bauinscriften Versuch eines Zugangs zu livianischen Quellen über Formen der Inscriftensprache. University of Göttingen, Ph.D. thesis.Google Scholar
Gatti, G. (1888a) Scoperte recentissime. Bullettino della Commissione Archeologica Comunale di Roma: 330–1.Google Scholar
Gatti, G. (1888b) Scoperte avvenute nella città e nel suburbio. Notizie degli Scavi di Antichità 8: 497–8.Google Scholar
Gatti, G. (1934) Saepta Iulia e Porticus Aemilia nella Forma Severiana. Bullettino della Commissione Archeologica Comunale di Roma 62: 135–44.Google Scholar
Gatti, G. (1936) L'arginatura del Tevere a Marmorata (un manoscritto inedito del P. Luigi M. Bruzza). Bullettino della Commissione Archeologica Comunale di Roma 64: 5582.Google Scholar
von Gerkan, A. (1958) Review of Lugli, La tecnica edilizia romana I, 1957. Göttingische Gelehrte Anzeiger 212: 178–97.Google Scholar
Gianfrotta, P.A. (1985) Indagini nell'area della Porticus Philippi. Roma. Archeologia nel centro II : 376–84. Rome, De Luca Editore.Google Scholar
Giuliani, C.F. (1970) Tibur. Pars prima. Forma Italiae, Regio I: 7. Rome, De Luca.Google Scholar
Giuliani, C.F. (1998–9) Il linguaggio di una grande architettura: il santuario tiburtino di Ercole Vincitore. Atti della Pontificia Accademia romana di archeologia: Rendiconti 71: 53110.Google Scholar
Giuliani, C.F. (2004) Tivoli. Il santuario di Ercole Vincitore. Tivoli, Tiburis Artistica.Google Scholar
Giustini, R. (1990) Porticus Metelli. Nuove acquisizioni. Bollettino di Archeologia 4: 71.Google Scholar
Gleason, K.L. (1994) Porticus Pompeiana: a new perspective on the first public park of ancient Rome. Journal of Garden History 14: 1327.Google Scholar
Gorski, G.J. and Packer, J.E. (2015) The Roman Forum: A Reconstruction and Architectural Guide. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Graillot, H. (1912) Le culte de Cybèle, mère des dieux, à Rome et dans l'Empire romain. Paris, Fontemoing et cie.Google Scholar
Greenhalgh, P.A.L. (1981) Pompey the Roman Alexander. Columbia, MO, University of Missouri Press.Google Scholar
Grimal, P. (1984) Les jardins romains à la fin de la république et aux deux premiers siècles de l'empire: Essai sur le naturalisme romain. Paris, E. de Boccard.Google Scholar
Gros, P. (1973) Hermodoros et Vitruve. Mélanges de l’École Française de Rome. Antiquité 85: 137–61.Google Scholar
Gros, P. (1976) Les premiers générations d'architectes hellénistiques à Rome. In Balland, A. (ed.), L'Italie préromaine et la Rome républicaine. Mélanges offerts à Jacques Heurgon I : 387410. Rome, Ecole française de Rome.Google Scholar
Gros, P. (1979) Les statues de Syracuse et les ‘dieux’ de Tarente (la classe politique romaine devant l'art grec à la fin du IIIe siècle avant J.- C.). Revue des Etudes Latines 57: 85114.Google Scholar
Gros, P. (1994) Le schéma vitruvien du théâtre latin et sa signification dans le système normatif du De architectura. Revue Archéologique 1994: 5780.Google Scholar
Gros, P. (1996) L'architecture romaine: Du début du IIIe siècle av. J.-C. à la fin du Haut-Empire. Paris, Picard.Google Scholar
Gruen, E.S. (1990) Studies in Greek Culture and Roman Policy. Leiden, E.J. Brill.Google Scholar
Gruen, E.S. (1992) Culture and National Identity in Republican Rome. Ithaca, NY, Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
Gullini, G. (1973) La datazione e l'inquadramento stilistico del santuario della Fortuna Primigenia a Palestrina. In Temporini, H. (ed.), Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt: Geschichte und Kultur Roms im Spiegel der neueren Forschung 4.1 : 746–99. Berlin, W. de Gruyter.Google Scholar
Hobsbawm, E.J. (2005) Cities and insurrection. Global Urban Development 1(1): 18.Google Scholar
Holland, L.A. (1961) Janus and the Bridge. Rome, American Academy in Rome.Google Scholar
Humm, M. (1996) Appius Claudius Caecus et la construction de la via Appia. Mélanges de l'Ecole Française de Rome. Antiquité 108: 693749.Google Scholar
Humm, M. (2005) Appius Claudius Caecus: La République accomplie. Rome, École Française de Rome.Google Scholar
Humphrey, J.H. (1986) Roman Circuses: Arenas for Chariot Racing. Berkeley, CA, University of California Press.Google Scholar
Iezzi, E. (1984) Aedes Herculis Musarum et Porticus Philippi. Bollettino della Storia dell'Arte 27: 120–9.Google Scholar
Ioppolo, G. (2001) La moneta romana. Milan, G.A. Bufalini.Google Scholar
Keaveney, A. (2005) Sulla. The Last Republican. London/New York, Routledge.Google Scholar
Kontokosta, A.H. (2013) Reconsidering the arches (fornices) of the Roman Republic. Journal of Roman Archaeology 26: 736.Google Scholar
Kostof, S. (1991) The City Shaped: Urban Patterns and Meanings through History. London, Thames and Hudson.Google Scholar
Kostof, S. (1992) The City Assembled: The Elements of Urban Form through History. London, Thames and Hudson.Google Scholar
Kuttner, A.L. (1999) Culture and history at Pompey's Museum. Transactions of the American Philological Association 129: 360–73.Google Scholar
Lagunes, M.M.S. (2004) Il Tevere e Roma: Storia di una simbiosi. Rome, Gangemi Editore.Google Scholar
Lancaster, L.C. (2005) Concrete Vaulted Construction in Imperial Rome: Innovations in Context. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
La Rocca, E. (1977) Cicli pittorici al sepolcro degli Scipioni. Roma Comune I Suppl. to No. 6–7: 14ff.Google Scholar
La Rocca, E. (1990) Linguaggio artistico e ideologia politica a Roma in età repubblicana. In Ampolo, C., Cassola, F., Fabbrini, F. et al. (eds), Roma e l'Italia: radices imperii: 289498. Milan, Libri Schweiwiller.Google Scholar
Latham, J.A. (2007) The Ritual Construction of Rome: Procession, Subjectivities, and the City from the Late Republic to Late Antiquity. University of California, Santa Barbara, Ph.D. thesis.Google Scholar
Lauter, H. (1980–1) Porticus Metelli – Porticus Octaviae. Die baulichen Resten. Bullettino della Commissione Archeologica Comunale di Roma 87: 3746.Google Scholar
Le Gall, J. (1939) Notes sur les prisons de Rome à l'époque républicaine. Mélanges de l’École Française de Rome 56: 6080.Google Scholar
Le Gall, J. (1953) Le Tibre, fleuve de Rome dans l'antiquité. Paris, Presses Universitaires de France.Google Scholar
Linderski, J. (1986) The Augural Law. In Temporini, H. (ed.), Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt: Geschichte und Kultur Roms im Spiegel der neueren Forschung II 16.3 : 2146–312. Berlin, W. de Gruyter.Google Scholar
Lintott, A. (1990) Electoral bribery in the Roman Republic. Journal of Roman Studies 80: 116.Google Scholar
Liverani, P. (2008) Cesare urbanista: l'uomo, le imprese, il mito. In Balsamo, C. (ed.), Giulio Cesare: l'uomo, le imprese, il mito: 4259. Milan, Silvana Editoriale.Google Scholar
Lott, J.B. (2004) The Neighborhoods of Augustan Rome. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Lugli, G. (1932) Il Carcere Mamertino. Capitolium 8: 232–44.Google Scholar
Lugli, G. (1946) Roma antica. Il centro monumentale. Rome, G. Bardi.Google Scholar
Lyngby, H. (1954) Beiträge zur Topographie des Forum – Boarium – Gebietes in Rom: Testominien nebst Kommentar unf kritischem Apparat. Lund, C.W.K. Gleerup.Google Scholar
Lyngby, H. (1968) Ricerche sulla Porta Trigemina. Opuscula Romana 6: 76–8.Google Scholar
MacDonald, W.L. (1982) The Architecture of the Roman Empire. Vol. 1: An Introductory Study. New Haven, CT, Yale University Press.Google Scholar
MacDonald, W.L. (1988) The Architecture of the Roman Empire. Vol. 2: An Urban Appraisal. New Haven, CT, Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Marabini Moevs, M.T. (1981) Le Muse di Ambracia. Bollettino d'Arte 66(12): 158.Google Scholar
Marcattili, F. (2009) Circo Massimo: architetture, funzioni, culti, ideologia. Rome, L'Erma di Bretschneider.Google Scholar
Martin, H.G. (1987) Römische Tempelkultbilder. Eine archäologische Untersuchung zur spät Republik. Rome, L'Erma di Bretschneider.Google Scholar
Martina, M. (1981) Aedes Herculis Musarum. Dialoghi di Archeologia 3: 4968.Google Scholar
McDonnell, M. (2009) Roman Manliness: ‘Virtus’ and the Roman Republic. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Meadows, A. and Williams, J. (2001) Moneta and the monuments: coinage and politics in Republican Rome. Journal of Roman Archaeology 91: 2749.Google Scholar
Meier, C. (1982) Caesar: A Biography. New York, Basic Books.Google Scholar
Miles, M.M. (2008) Art as Plunder: The Ancient Origins of Debate about Cultural Property. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Mocchegiani Carpano, C. and Meneghini, R. (1985) Lungotevere Testaccio. Bullettino della Commissione Archeologica Comunale di Roma 90: 8695.Google Scholar
Mogetta, M. (2013) The Origins of Concrete in Rome and Pompeii. University of Michigan, Ph.D. thesis.Google Scholar
Mommsen, T. (1887) Römisches Staatsrecht II.1 . Leipzig, S. Hirzel.Google Scholar
Monterroso Checa, A. (2006) Theatrum Pompei. Romula 5: 2758.Google Scholar
Morgan, G. (1973) Villa Publica and Magna Mater. Klio 55: 214–45.Google Scholar
Nielsen, I. and Poulsen, B. (eds) (1992) The Temple of Castor and Pollux I. Rome, Edizioni de Luca.Google Scholar
North, J.A. (1990) Family strategy and priesthood in the late Republic. In Andreau, J. and Bruhns, H. (eds), Parenté et Stratégies Familiales dans l'Antiquité: 527–43. Rome, École Française de Rome.Google Scholar
Olinder, B. (1974) Porticus Octavia in Circo Flaminio. Topographical Studies in the Campus Region of Rome. Lund, P. Åströms Förlag.Google Scholar
Orlin, E.M. (2010) Foreign Cults in Rome: Creating a Roman Empire. Oxford, Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Owens, E.J. (1991) The City in the Greek and Roman World. London, Routledge.Google Scholar
Packer, J.E. (2006) Drawing Pompey: three centuries of documenting Pompey's Theater (1833–2007). In Leone, A., Palombi, D. and Walker, S. (eds), Res Bene Gestae. Ricerche di storia urbana su Roma antica in onore di Eva Margareta Steinby: 257–78. Rome, Quasar.Google Scholar
Packer, J.E. et al. (2007) Looking again at Pompey's Theater: the 2005 excavation season. American Journal of Archaeology 111: 505–22.Google Scholar
Panella, C. (ed.) (2013) Scavare nel centro di Roma. Storie uomini paesaggi. Rome, Edizioni Quasar.Google Scholar
Parenti, M. (2003) The Assassination of Julius Caesar: A People's History of Rome. New York/London, The New Press.Google Scholar
Pensabene, P. and D'Alessio, A. (2006) L'immaginario urbano. Spazio sacro sul Palatino tardo-repubblicano. In Haselberger, L. and Humphrey, J. (eds), Imaging Ancient Rome. Documentation, Visualization, Imagination. Proceedings of the Third Williams Symposium on Classical Architecture Held at the American Academy in Rome, the British School at Rome and the Deutsches Archäologisches Institut, Rome, on May 20–23, 2004: 3050. Portsmouth, RI, Journal of Roman Archaeology.Google Scholar
Picozzi, M.G. and Santorio, P. (1973) Le mure serviane. In Benedetto, R. (ed.), Roma medio repubblicana: aspetti culturali di Roma e del Lazio nei secoli IV e III a. C.: 731. Rome, Assessorato Antichità. Belle Arti e Problemi nella Cultura.Google Scholar
Platner, S.B. and Ashby, T. (1929) A Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome. Oxford, Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Pollitt, J.J. (1986) Art in the Hellenistic Age. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Rakob, F. and Heilmeyer, E.D. (1973) Der Rundtempel am Tiber in Rom. Mainz, Philipp von Zabern.Google Scholar
Rankov, B. (2013) Roman shipsheds. In Blackman, D. and Rankov, B. (eds), Shipsheds of the Ancient Mediterranean: 3054. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Rawson, E. (1974) Religion and politics in the late second century B.C. at Rome. Phoenix 28: 193212.Google Scholar
Ricci, C. (1933) Il Foro di Cesare. Capitolium 8: 157–72, 365–30.Google Scholar
Richardson, L. Jr (1977) Hercules Musarum and the Porticus Philippi in Rome. American Journal of Archaeology 81: 355–61.Google Scholar
Richardson, L. Jr (1991) Urban development in ancient Rome and the impact of empire. In Emlen, J., Mohlo, A. and Raablauf, K.A. (eds), City States in Classical Antiquity and Medieval Italy. Athens and Rome, Florence and Venice: 381402. Ann Arbor, MI, University of Michigan Press.Google Scholar
Riggsby, A. M. (1997) ‘Public’ and ‘Private’ in Roman Culture. Journal of Roman Archaeology 10: 3656.Google Scholar
Robinson, O.F. (1992) Ancient Rome: City Planning and Administration London, Routledge.Google Scholar
Rodríguez Almeida, E. (1981) Forma urbis marmorea. Aggiornamento generale. Rome, Edizioni Quasar.Google Scholar
Rodríguez Almeida, E. (1984) Il monte Testaccio: ambiente, storia, materiali. Rome, Edizioni Quasar.Google Scholar
Roller, L.E. (1999) In Search of God the Mother: The Cult of Anatolian Cybele. Berkeley, CA, University of California Press.Google Scholar
Rumpf, A. (1950) Die Entstehung des römischen Theaters. Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts 3: 4050.Google Scholar
Rüpke, J. (2008) Fasti Sacerdotum. A Prosopography of Pagan, Jewish, and Christian Religious Officials in the City of Rome, 300 BC to AD 499. Oxford, Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Rüpke, J. (2011) The Roman Calendar from Numa to Constantine: Time, History, and the Fasti. Oxford, Wiley–Blackwell.Google Scholar
Russell, A. (2016) The Politics of Public Space in Republican Rome. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Såflund, G. (1932) Le mura di Roma reppublicana. Rome, Skrifter utgivna av Svenska Institutet i Rom (Acta Instituti Romani Regni Sueciae).Google Scholar
Sappa, M. and Sappa, G. (1999) Sulla situazione fondale del Tabularium sul Colle Capitolino. Geologia e Geotecnica Ambientale 98: 199208.Google Scholar
Scobie, A. (1986) Slums, sanitation, and mortality in the Roman world. Klio 68: 399433.Google Scholar
Seager, R. (1979, 2002) Pompey the Great: A Political Biography. Oxford, Blackwell Publishing.Google Scholar
Sear, F.B. (2006) Roman Theatres: An Architectural Study. Oxford, Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Serafin, P. (2001) Dove erano le zecche di Roma repubblicana? In I luoghi della moneta; le sedi delle zecche dall'antichità all'età moderna: atti del convegno internazionale, 22–23 ottobre 1999, Milano: 2940. Milan, Commune di Roma.Google Scholar
Serafini, C. (1943–5) Tesoretto di monete d'età repubblicana rinvenuto al Campidoglio. Bullettino della Commissione Archeologica Comunale di Roma 14: 109–12.Google Scholar
Sommella, A.M. (1984) L'esplorazione archeologica per il restauro del Tabularium. Archeologia Laziale 6: 159–63.Google Scholar
Sordi, M. (1988) La decadenza della Repubblica e il teatro del 154 a.C. Invigilata Iucernis 10: 327–41.Google Scholar
Soyoz, U. (2010) Drama on the Urban Stage: Architecture, Spectacles and Power in Hellenistic Pergamon. University of Texas at Austin, Ph.D. thesis.Google Scholar
Staccioli, R.A. (2003) The Roads of the Romans. Los Angeles, J. Paul Getty Museum.Google Scholar
Stamper, J.W. (2005) The Architecture of Roman Temples: The Republic to the Middle Empire. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Steinby, E.M. (2012) Edilizia pubblica e potere politico nella Roma repubblicana. Rome, Jaca Book.Google Scholar
Strong, D.E. and Ward-Perkins, J.B. (1960) The Round Temple in the Forum Boarium. Papers of the British School at Rome 28: 730.Google Scholar
Talamo, E. (2008) La fronte depinta del sepolcro degli Scipioni. In La Rocca, E. and Tortorella, S. (eds), Trionfi romani: 119. Rome, Electa.Google Scholar
Taylor, L.R. (1960) The Voting Districts of the Roman Republic (Papers and Monographs of the American Academy at Rome 20). Rome, The American Academy at Rome.Google Scholar
Taylor, L.R. (1962) Forerunners of the Gracchi. Journal of Roman Studies 52: 1927.Google Scholar
Thein, A.G. (2002) Sulla's Public Image and the Politics of Civic Renewal. University of Pennsylvania, Ph.D. thesis.Google Scholar
Thomsen, R. (1941) Studien über den ursprünglichen Bau des Caesarforums. Opuscula Romana 5: 195218.Google Scholar
Tibiletti, G. (1972) Problemi gromatici e storici. Rivista Storica dell'Antichità 2: 8792.Google Scholar
Tomlinson, R.A. (1992) From Mycenae to Constantinople: The Evolution of the Ancient City. London, Routledge.Google Scholar
Torelli, M. (2007) L'urbanistica di Roma regia e repubblicana. In Gros, P. and Torelli, M. (eds), Storia dell'urbanistica. Il mondo romano 4 : 81157. Rome/Bari, Editori Laterza.Google Scholar
Tucci, P.L. (2005) ‘Where high Moneta leads her steps sublime.’ The ‘Tabularium’ and the Temple of Juno Moneta. Journal of Roman Archaeology 18: 633.Google Scholar
Tucci, P.L. (2012) La controversa storia della ‘porticus Aemilia’. Archeologia Classica 63: 575–91.Google Scholar
Tuck, S.L. (2000) A new identification for the ‘Porticus Aemilia’. Journal of Roman Archaeology 13: 175–82.Google Scholar
Valadier, G. (1813) Tempio detto di Vesta in Roma. Raccolta della più insigni fabbriche di Roma antica 3 . Rome, dai torchi di Mariano de Romanis e figli.Google Scholar
Valentini, R. and Zucchetti, G. (1940) Codice Topografi co della città di Roma. Rome, Fonti per la Storia d'Italia, Istituto Storico Italiano per il Medio Evo.Google Scholar
Van Deman, E.B. (1934) The Building of the Roman Aqueducts. Washington DC, Carnegie Institute.Google Scholar
Veyne, P. (1990) Bread and Circuses: Historical Sociology and Political Pluralism. London, The Penguin Press.Google Scholar
Viscogliosi, A. (1996) Il Tempio di Apollo in Circo e la formazione del linguaggio architettonico augusteo. Rome, L'Erma di Bretschneider.Google Scholar
Von Hesberg, H. (1999) The king on stage. In Bergmann, B. and Kondoleon, C. (eds), The Art of Ancient Spectacle: 6575. New Haven, CT, Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Wallace-Hadrill, A. (1998) Horti and Hellenization. In Cima, M. and Rocca, E. La (eds), Horti romani: atti del convegno internazionale: Roma, 4–6 maggio 1995: 112. Rome, L'Erma di Bretschneider.Google Scholar
Wallace-Hadrill, A. (2008) Rome's Cultural Revolution. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Welch, K.E. (2003) A new view of the origins of the Basilica: the Atrium Regium, Graecostasis, and Roman diplomacy. Journal of Roman Archaeology 16: 534.Google Scholar
Westall, R. (1996) The Forum Iulium as representation of Imperator Caesar. Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts, Römische Abteilung 103: 83118.Google Scholar
Winter, F.E. (2006) Studies in Hellenistic Architecture. Toronto, University of Toronto Press.Google Scholar
Wiseman, T.P. (1993) Rome and the resplendent Aemilii. In Jocelyn, H.D. and Hunt, H. (eds), Tria Lustra: Essays and Notes Presented to John Pinsent: 181–92. Liverpool, Liverpool Classical Monthly.Google Scholar
Zanker, P. (1988) The Power of Images in Augustan Rome. Ann Arbor, MI, University of Michigan Press.Google Scholar
Zevi, F. (1976) L'identificazione del tempio di Marte ‘in circo’ e altre osservazioni. In Balland, A. (ed.), L'Italie préromaine et la Rome républicaine. Mélanges offerts à Jacques Heurgon II : 1047–64. Rome, École Française de Rome.Google Scholar
Ziolkowski, A. (1988) Mummius’ Temple of Hercules Victor and the Round Temple on the Tiber. Phoenix 42: 309–33.Google Scholar
Ziolkowski, A. (1992) The Temples of Mid-Republican Rome and their Historical and Topographical Context. Rome, L'Erma di Bretschneider.Google Scholar