Hostname: page-component-84b7d79bbc-5lx2p Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-07-28T01:41:16.514Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Archaeological Bitumen: Indentification, Origins and Uses of an Ancient Near Eastern Material

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  28 February 2011

Jacques Connan  and
Odile Deschesne
Jacques Connan
Affiliation:
Elf-Aquitaine, Direction Exploration - Centre Scientifique et Technique Jean Feger, Paris, France
Odile Deschesne
Affiliation:
Department of Oriental Antiquities, Louvre Museum, 34-36 Quai du Louvre, 75058 Paris, Cedex 01, France
Get access

Abstract

Prior to their modern invention, the use of petroleum products (bitumen, asphalt, etc.) was common in the prehistory of the Near East. In Mesopotamia where they are plentiful, often occurring at the surface of the ground, these products have been utilized in diverse ways: for construction and caulking of buildings, as a waterproofing agent, and even as a medicine to remedy coughing. Archaeologists have questioned the location of principal sites exploited in antiquity and the ways that these products have been used. As the result of a close collaboration between petroleum specialists and archaeologists, this article explains how geochemical analysis has enabled identification of the provenance of bitumen utilized at Babylon in Iraq, how the inhabitants of Susa in Iran used bitumen, its preparation and also its fabrication as an artificial material which has proven to be as durable as stone.

Type
Research Article
Information
MRS Online Proceedings Library (OPL) , Volume 267: Symposium J – Materials Issues in Art and Archaeology III , 1992 , 683
Copyright
Copyright © Materials Research Society 1992

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1. Forbes, R.J., “Bitumen and Petroleum in Antiquity”, Studiesin Ancient Technology, v. 1, Brill, E.J., 1964.Google Scholar
2. Hansen, G., Steinol und Brunnenfeuer, Wintershall Aktiengessellschaft, 1975.Google Scholar
3. Marschner, R.F. and Wright, H.T., in G. Carter (ed.),Archaeolo Qical Chemistry, v. II, Advances in Chemistry Series, 717 American Chemical Society, 1978; and R.F. Marschner et al.,Paleorient 4 (1978) 97ff.Google Scholar
4. Venkatesan, M.I. et al., Nature 295 (1982) 517.Google Scholar
5. Lloyd, S. et al., Eridu, Ministry of Culture and Information,Baghdad, 1981; J. de Morgan et al., Memoires de le delegationen Perse, v. 1, 13, 25, Leroux, E., 1900, 1912, 1934; and J. de Morgan et al., Memoires de la Mission Archaeologicrue en Iran, v. 29, Geuthner 1943.Google Scholar
6. Duval, J., Les Jardins Suspendus de Babylone, Famot-Francois Beauval Editeur, 1980.Google Scholar
7. Huot, J.-L. et al., Larsa et Tell el Oueili, Travaux des Campa Qnes 1978-1981 et 1983, Editions Recherche sur lesCivilizations, 1983 and 1987.Google Scholar
8. Parrot, A., Mission Archaeoloqique de Mari, v. 1, 2, 3,Geuthner, 1956, 1958, 1967; J.C. Margueron et al., Mari, v. 1, 2, 3, 5, Editions Recherche sur les Civilizations, 1982, 1983, 1984 and 1987.Google Scholar
9. Frankfort, H. et al., The Gilmilsin Temple and the Palace ofthe Rulers at Tell Asmar. the University of Chicago Press, 1940.Google Scholar
10. Parrot, A., Tello. Vingt Campagnes de Fouille 1877-1933,Albin Michel, 1948.Google Scholar
11. Kramer, S.A., Iraq 39 (1977) 59ff.Google Scholar
12. Budge, E.A. Wallis, “The Babylon Story of the Deluge and the Epic of Gilgamesh”, in Publications of the British Museum,Harrison and Sons, London, 1920.Google Scholar
13. Cleuziou, S., personal communication.Google Scholar
14. Rulkotter, J. and Nissenbaum, A., Naturwissenschaften 75 (1988) 618.; Connan, J. and Dessort, D., C.R. Acad. Sci. Paris 309 (1989) 1665.Google Scholar
15. Deschesne, O., Le Travail du Bitume a Suse. InventaireArchaeologiiaue, Memoire de l'Ecole du Louvre, 1982.Google Scholar
16. Connan, J., “Quelques Secrets des Bitumes Archeologiques de Mesopotamie Reveles par les Analyses de Geochimie OrganiquePetroliere”, Bull. Centre Rech. Explor. Prod. Elf-Aauitaine, 12 (1988) 759.Google Scholar
17.Cf. note 1.Google Scholar
18. Petrequin, G., Le Bitume en Mesopotamie aux Epocrues Neo Sumerienne et Paleo-Babylonienne d'apres les SourcesCuneiformes, Memoire de Maitrise Universite Paris I, 1989.Google Scholar
19. Connan, J. et al., Centre Rech. Explor. Prod. Elf-Acruitaine, 14, 2 (1990) 521.Google Scholar
20. Pascoe, E.H., Memoirs of the Geolo Qical Survey of India 48 718 (1922) iff.Google Scholar
21. Connan, J., “La Geochimie Organique au Service del'Exploration Petroliere”, supplement, La Recherche 227 (March 1989) 18-23.Google Scholar
22.cf. ref. 16.Google Scholar
23. Lahanier, C., Annales du Laboratoire de Recherche des Museesde France, 47 (1977).Google Scholar
24.Other useful references are Abraham, H., “HistoricalReview”, Asphalts and Allied Substances, D. Van Nostrand Co.,Inc., 1960, p. 3ff; Pile, G., “Jadis le Petrole”, Petrole et Techniques 13 (Aug.-Sept. 1978); Connan, J. and Deschesne, O., "Le Bitume dans L'Antiquite”, La Recherche 22 (Feb. 1991) 152-159; and Connan, J., Deschesne, O. and Dessort, D., “L'Origine des Bitumes Archeologiques de Ras Shamra”, Ras Shamra-Ouqarit VI:Arts et Industries de la Piere, ADPF, Paris, 1990, pp. 101–125.Google Scholar
25. Deschesne, O., “Exemples d'Utilization dy Bitume a RasShamra:, in Yon, M., Gauchet, J., Lombard, P., Mallet, J. and Deschesne, O., “Fouilles de la 48e campagne (1988) a Ras-ShamraOugarit”, S__yria 67 (1990) 1-29; and in general, Mission Archeologique de Ras Shamra, Ras Shamra, 1929-1979, CMO, Lyon, 1979.Google Scholar
26. Lloyd, S. and Safar, F., “Tell Hassuna: Excavations by the Iraq Government Directorate of Antiquities in 1943 and 1944”,Jour. of Near Eastern Studies 4 (1945) 255-289, esp. 268-274and Fig. 37.Google Scholar
27. Mellaart, J., The Neolithic of the Near East, Thames and Hudson, London, 1975, pp. 81–82.Google Scholar
28. Bar-Yosef, O., A Cave in the Desert: Nahal Hemar, 9000 Year Old Finds, The Israel Museum, Jerusalem, 1985.Google Scholar
29. Mecquenem, R. de, “Contribution a l'Etude des Outils en Pierre Trouves dans les Ruines de Suse”, L'Anthropoloqie, 33 (1923) pp. 469–474, figs. 1 and 2.Google Scholar
30. Yon, M. and Gauchet, “Une Statuette de Dieu E1 a Ougarit”,Syria 66 (1989) p. 349; Yon et al., 1990, p. 4–5, fig. 2, cf.note 25; Yon, M., “El, Pere des Dieux”, Monuments piot 77 (1990) 1-19.Google Scholar
31. Schaeffer, C., “Nouveaux Temoignages du Culte de E1 et de Baal a Ras Shamra-Ugarit et Ailleurs en Syrie-Palestine”, Syria 43 (1966) 1-19.Google Scholar
32. Collon, D., in Catalogue de l'Exposition Au Pays de Baal etd'Astarte: i0,000 Ans de'Art en Syrie, Petit Palais, Paris, 1983, fig. 2, pl. II, fig. 2, pl. III.Google Scholar
33.Catalogue de l'Exposition Sumer, Assur, Babylone, PetitPalais, Paris, 1981, nos. 3 and 41.Google Scholar
34. Schaeffer, C., “Decouverte d'un Troisieme Palais: Rapport Preliminaire des Fouilles 1968-1969 (XXXe et XXXIe Campagnes)”,Svrie 47 (1970) 209-213; J. and Lagarce, E., “Chantier du Paris aux Orthostates (Palais Nord)”, Syrie 49 (1972) 15-25, and thedate, pp. 27–33; O. Callot “La Region Nord du Palais Royald"Ougarit”, Comptes Rendus de l'Academie des Inscriptions et Belles Lettres 1986, 735-755, esp. 737 and note 10 on dating.Google Scholar
35. Huot, J.-L., Calvet, Y., Charpin, D., Cleuziou, S. and Forest, J.-D., “Larsa: Rapport Preliminaire sur la Sixieme Campagne”,Syrie 53 (1976) 1-45, esp. p. 8; Parrot, A., Mission Archeolocicrue de Mari. T. I 1956, p. 13; cf. ref. 36, Parrot, A., 1958, p. 199 and 1967, p. 24.Google Scholar
36. Parrot, A., Mission Archeolocicue de Mari, II, T., Geuthner, 1958, pp. 15, 66, 73f; Parrot, A., Mission Archeoloqicue deMari, III, T., Geuthner, Paris, 1967, p. 33; F. Thureau-Danginand Dunand, M., Til Barsip, Geuthner, Paris, 1936, p. 29f.Google Scholar
37. Lloyd, S. and Safar, F., “Tell Uqair: Excavations by the Iraq Government Directorate of Antiquities in 1940-1941”, Jour. of Near Eastern Studies 2 (1943) 131-158.Google Scholar
38. Ghirshman, R., “Suse: Campaigne de Fouilles 1965-1966”, Arts Asiaticrues 15 (1967) Paris, pp. 3–28.Google Scholar
39.Cf. ref. 34, Callot, 1988, p. 749–750.Google Scholar
40. Toll, I.M. “The Mineral Resources of Syria”, Engineering and Mining Journal 112, no. 22 (1921) 846-852; Marchkwald, E., “Die Asphaltlager von Lattakia”, Petroleum Zeitschrift 18 no. 5 (1922) 165-170; Abraham, H., Asphalts and Allied Substances, vanNostrand, Inc., Princeton, 1960, v. 1, pp. 209–211.Google Scholar
41. Connan, J., “Quelques Secrets des Bitumes Archeologiques de Mesopotamie Reveles par les Analyses de Geochimie OrganiquePetroliere”, Bull. Centres Rech. - Explor. Prod. Elf-AquitaineGoogle Scholar
12, no. 2 (1988) 759-787.Google Scholar
42. Cornelius, C.D., “Classification of Natural Bitumin: APhysicaland Chemical Approach”, Exploration for Heavy Crude Oil and Natural bitumen ed. by R.F. Meyer, AAPG Studies in Geology 25 (1987) 165-174.Google Scholar
43. Venkatesan, M.I., Linich, T.W., Suess, H.E. and Buccellati, G., "Asphalt in Carbon 14 Dated Archaeological Samples from Terqa,Syria:, Nature 295, 5849 (1982) 1-3; K.-H. Hellnuth, J. Koch , E. Strommenger-Nagel and H. Wehner, Untersuchungen an Bitumenaus den Ausgrabungen von Habuba Kabira (Syrien), unpublishedreport, 1989; cf. Connan, ref. 41.Google Scholar
44. Hussler, G., Marcrueurs Geochimicues en Series Carbonatees.These de Doctorat es-Sciences, Univ. Louis-Pasteur, Strasbourg, 1985.Google Scholar
45.Cf. ref. 41, Connan 1988.Google Scholar
46. Chosson, P., Connan, H., Dessort, D. and Lanau, C., “In Vitro Biodegradation of Steranes and Terpanes: a Clue to Understanding Geological Situations”, Biological Markers in Sediments and Petroleum, Albrecht, P., Moldowan, J.M. and Philp, R.P., eds., 1990.Google Scholar
47. Seifert, W.K. and Moldowan, J.M., “The Effects of Biodegradation on Steranes and Terpanes in Crude Oils”,Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 43 (1979) 11-126.Google Scholar
48.Cf. ref. 41, Connan 1988.Google Scholar
49.Cf. ref. 41, Connan 1988.Google Scholar
50. Summons, R.E. and Jahnke, L., “Identification of the Methylhopanes in Sediment and Petroleum”, Geochim. Cosmochim.Acta 54 (1990) 247-251; Seifert, W.K., Moldowan, J.M., Demaison, G.J., “Source Correlation of Biodegraded Oils”, Org. Geochem. 6 (1984) 633-643; and Moldowan, J.M., Sundararaman, P., Salvatori, T., Alajbeg, A., Gjukic, B., Lee, C.Y. and Demaison, G.J., Source Correlation and Maturity Assessment of Select Oils and Rocks from the Central Adriatic Basin (Italy and Yugoslavia), Am. Chem. Soc., Dallas, april 1989.Google Scholar
51. Connan, J. and Dessort, D., “Novel Family of Hexacyclic Hopanoid Alkanes (C 32-C 35 ) Occurring in Sediments and Oils from Anoxic Palaeoenvironments”, Org. Geochem., 11, no. 2 (1987) 103-113; and Trendel, J.M., Guilhem, J., Ph. Crisp, Repeta, D., Connan, J. and Albrecht, P., “Identification of Two C-10Demethylated C28Hopanes in Biodegraded Petroleum”, J. Chem.Soc., Chemical Communications, 5 (1990) 424-425.Google Scholar
52.Cf. ref. 46, Chosson et al, 1990.Editor's Note: P. Vandiver translated this article and errorsintroduced into the text are my fault. See the last twocitations in ref. 24 for the original texts which have beenadapted here.Reproduced with permission. La Recherche, February 1991.Google Scholar