1 However, the SPTL addressed the problem in 1969: see Jolowicz, J A (ed) The Division and Classification of the Law (London: Butterworth, 1970)Google Scholar. See also an important recent paper by Professor Peter Birks QC ‘Equity in the Modern Law: An Exercise in Taxonomy’ (1996) 26(1) University of Western Australia Law Review 1.

2 Weir, T ‘The Common Law System’ in International Encyclopedia of Comparative Law, vol II, ch 2, pt III, para 82 Google Scholar.

3 Foucault, Cf M Les mots et les choses (Gallimard, 1966) pp 137–176 Google Scholar. And see Birks op cit.

4 Susskind, R Expert Systems in Law (Oxford, 1987) p 173 Google Scholar.

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6 H Dreyfus What Computers Still Can't Do (MIT, 1992).

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12 Atias, C Épistémologie du droit (Presses Universitaires de France, 1994) p 4 Google Scholar.

13 A Virieux-Reymond Introduction à l'épistémologie (Presses Universitaires de France, 2nd edn, 1972) pp 7–8 Google Scholar. And see Samuel, G The Foundations of Legal Reasoning (Maklu, 1994) pp 117–133 Google Scholar; Samuel, G and Rinkes, J Law of Obligations and Legal Remedies (Cavendish, 1996) pp 350–354 Google Scholar.

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17 See Berthelot, J-M L'intelligence du social (Presses Universitaires de France, 1990) pp 43–85 Google Scholar. And for a summary of the schemes see Granger op cit pp 87–92.

18 See eg Freeman op cit. Of course, there are exceptions: see eg Dias, R W M Jurisprudence (London: Butterworth, 5th edn, 1985)Google Scholar. And in the past things were different: see eg Keeton, G W The Elementary Principles of Jurisprudence (Pitman, 2nd edn, 1949)Google Scholar.

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21 Jones, J W Historical Introduction to the Theory of Law (Oxford, 1940) pp 204–205 Google Scholar.

22 Kelly, J M A Short History of Western Legal Theory (Oxford, 1992) pp 271–277 Google Scholar.

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24 D.1.3.7.

25 D.2.1.3.

26 C.7.37.3.

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28 Wieacker, F A History of Private Law in Europe (Oxford, 1995; trans T Weir) pp 239–256 Google Scholar.

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31 Oxford, 1961. The work is now in a revised edition: Oxford, 1994.

32 See generally Kelsen, H The Pure Theory of Law (California, 1967; trans M Knight)Google Scholar.

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37 Ibid.

38 Ibid p 206.

39 Atias, C Épistémologie juridique (Presses Universitaires de France, 1985) p 164 Google Scholar.

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42 Astolfi, J-P and Develay, M La didactique des sciences (Presses Universitaires de France, 4th edn, 1996) p 114 Google Scholar.

43 For a stimulating historical reflection on this distinction see Watson, A ‘The Importance of “Nutshells”’ (1994) 42 American Journal of Comparative Law 1 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

44 Villey, M La formation de la pensée juridique moderne (Monchrestien, 4th edn, 1975) pp 538–540 Google Scholar; Dubouchet, P La pensée juridique avant et après le Code civil (Hermés, 2nd edn, 1991) p 117 Google Scholar.

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46 Lobban, M The Common Law and English Jurisprudence (Oxford, 1991) pp 288–289 Google Scholar.

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50 Miliangos v George Frank (Textiles) Ltd [1976] AC 443 at 481–482.

51 See eg White v Jones [1995] 2 AC 207.

52 Birks op cit p 5.

53 See Legrand op cit.

54 On which see generally Jones Historical Introduction to the Theory of Law op cit.

55 Blanché op cit pp 33–39.

56 Samuel and Rinkes op cit pp 350–351.

57 Kuhn, T S The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (Chicago, 2nd edn, 1970)Google Scholar. Kuhn's recent death nearly passed unnoticed in England J Naughton The Observer Review, 23 June 1996, p 11.

58 See eg Barker's, Ernest assessment of Maine: E Barker Political Thought in England 1848–1914 (Oxford, 2nd edn, 1928) pp 145–148 Google Scholar. And see, generally, Samuel, G ‘Science, Law and History: Historical Jurisprudence and Modern Legal Theory’ (1990) 41 Northern Ireland Legal Quarterly 1 Google Scholar.

59 One exception might be: Strömholm, S A Short History of Legal Thinking in the West (Norstedts, 1985)Google Scholar; but this book, sadly perhaps, does not seem to have made a major impact in the UK. J M Kelly A Short History of Western Legal Theory op cit is not really a history of legal science and legal method.

60 Legrand, P ‘How to Compare Now’ (1996) 16 Legal Studies 232, 233–235CrossRefGoogle Scholar. See also P Legrand ‘Comparative Legal Studies and Commitment to Theory’ (1995) 58 MLR 262.

61 See eg Birks op cit. Note also Jones's comment: ‘… classification itself plays an important part in the growth of the law. It may be that jurists have been wise not to insist upon the creative power of legal theory. Their influence, such as it is, is none the less effective, though, like the judges, they profess to declare rather than to make the law. Yet Jhering himself had no illusions on the subject; he never tired of asserting that systematization is an inexhaustible, if unacknowledged, source of new law—therefore it is right to speak of it as not simply interpretation, but as construction as well’ (op cit p 175–176).

62 Granger op cit p 114.

63 See Birks op cit pp 8–10.

64 Kelley, D R The Human Measure: Social Thought in the Western Legal Tradition (Harvard, 1990)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

65 Jolowicz, H F Roman Foundations of Modern Law (Oxford, 1957) pp 61–81 Google Scholar; Stein, P ‘The Development of the Institutional System’ in Stein, P G and Lewis, A D E (eds) Studies in Justinian's Institutes in memory of JAC Thomas (London: Sweet & Maxwell, 1983) pp 151–163 Google Scholar; Stein, P The Character and Influence of the Roman Civil Law (Hambledon, 1988) pp 73–82 Google Scholar. And see also Kelley op cit.

66 G.1.8; 5.1.2.12; D.1.5.1; Samuel and Rinkes op cit pp 64–66. The term ‘institution’ is used here in the modem civilian sense of a focal point around which rules are grouped: Bergel op cit p 178.

67 Samuel Foundations op cit pp 171–173.

68 Ibid pp 175–178.

69 Stein ‘Development of the Institutional System’ op cit pp 157–158.

70 But see Kelley op cit.

71 See eg D.9.3.1.

72 J.3.13pr.

73 See eg D.2.8.15.

74 G.4.2–4.

75 Samuel Foundations op cit pp 177–178.

76 ‘Let us note that legal science is characterised from a methodological point of view by the fact of describing ‘atypical objects’, legal norms, which are nothing other than prescriptive propositions. What we wish only to say here is that the legal norm … constitutes, from the point of view of neo-positivist methodology, a rather particular kind of “object” which escapes the criteria of observability established for all empirical phenomena. The legal norm, at least according to the meta-scientific perspective of these positivists, is not in fact something of which one can have an immediate and direct perception… without the aid of concepts and theoretical categories’: V Villa La science du droit (Story-Scientia, 1990 trans O Nerhot and P Nerhot) p 84.

77 Samuel Foundations op cit pp 178–180.

78 D.1.3.7.

79 See eg Code civil art 544; cf Halpérin, J-L, Histoire du droit privé rançais depuis 1804 (Presses Universitaires de France, 1996) pp 25–26 Google Scholar.

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81 Tierney, B Religion. Law, and the Growth of Constitutional Thought 1150–1650 (Cambridge, 1982) pp 29–44 Google Scholar.

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83 D.50.17.1.

84 G.2.14.

85 D.l.1.12; Jolowicz Roman Foundations op cit pp 80–81; Samuel Foundations op cit pp 53–54.

86 See eg Hart, H L A The Concept of Law (Oxford, 1961) pp 84–85; Susskind op cit pp 172–174Google Scholar.

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88 J Penner ‘Basic Obligations’ (SPTL Seminar Paper, 1996) p 10.

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90 See eg Lobban op cit pp 282–289.

91 G Bachelard La formation de l'esprit scientifique (Vrin 1938, reprint 1989) p 44.

92 D.9.3.1.

93 D.9.2.3 1.

94 D.13.6.2.

95 J.4.6pr.

96 Jolowicz op cit pp 80–81.

97 See eg Noveau Code de Procédure Civile arts 30–32.

98 See eg D. 11.1.6pr.

99 Henderson v Merrett Syndicates Ltd [1995] 2 AC 145 at 184.

100 D.22.6.2.

101 Milsom, S F C Historical Foundations of the Common Law (London: Butterworth, 2nd edn, 1981) p 36 Google Scholar. And see, generally, Baker, J H An Introduction to English Legal History (London: Butterworth, 3rd edn, 1990) pp 63–81 Google Scholar.

102 Caenegem, RC van ‘History of European Civil Procedure’ in International Encyclopedia of Comparative Law, vol XVI, ch 2, para 22Google Scholar.

103 Milsom op cit pp 42–44, 75, 83.

104 Ibid p 243.

105 Ibid pp 398–399.

106 See Patault, A-M Introduction historique au droit des biens (Presses Universitaires de France, 1989) pp 17–36 Google Scholar.

107 See eg Seipp, DJ ‘The Reception of Canon Law and Civil Law in the Common Law Courts Before 1600’ (1993) 13 OJLS 388, 406–412 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

108 See eg Milsom op cit pp 275–282. And see today Mareva Compania Naviera v International Bulkcarriers [1980] 1 All ER 213; Anton Piller KG v Manufacturing Processes Ltd [1976] 1 All ER 779.

109 In respect of the later nineteenth century see Samuel and Rinkes op cit pp 79–80.

110 Ibid pp 305–313. Today, animals, aircraft, trees, buildings, land, tools and so on all attract their own specific rules as far as civil liability is concerned.

111 Ibid pp 257–265.

112 Birks op cit p 4.

113 See eg Bryunt v Herbert (1877) 3 CPD 389.

114 Baker op cit pp 379–400. This process began, of course, well before the formal abolition of the forms of action.

115 Bryunt v Herbert (1877) 3 CPD 389 at 390.

116 The Roman law influence of non-contractual actions based on wrongs came largely through Blackstone: Winfield, P H The Province of the Law of Tort (Cambridge, 1931) pp 25–31 Google Scholar. However, what Blackstone provided were ‘a series of forms into which to put the content of the common law’: Lobban op cit p 39.

117 For a history see D H van Zyl ‘The General Enrichment Action is Alive and Well’ [1992] Acta Juridica 115.

118 Sincluir v Brougham [1914] AC 398 at 415.

119 Lindley LJ even went as far as implying that English law conformed more or less to the pattern to be found in Justinian's Institutes: Taylor v Manchester, Sheffield & Lincolnshire Rly [1895] 1 QB 134 at 138.

120 For some examples see Samuel and Rinkes op cit p 79, notes 111–112; p 80, note 121; p 81, note 124; p 82, note 131.

121 Zweigert, K and Kötz, H An Introduction to Comparative Law (Oxford, 2nd rev edn, 1992; trans T Weir) p 664 Google Scholar.

122 See generally Evans|LJ in Kleinwort Benson Ltd v Birmingham City Council [1996] 3WLR 1139, 1142–1143 Google Scholar.

123 See eg Weir, T ‘Complex Liabilities’ in International Encyclopedia of comparative Law, vol XI, ch 12, para 4Google Scholar.

124 Legislation, in using the terms contract, tort and, more recently, unjust enrichment, does go some way in embedding the categories; but the Gaian scheme itself has never been imposed, as a whole, by the legislature.

125 See eg Mattei, U, Three Patterns of Law: Taxonomy and Change in the World's Legal Systems (1997) 45 American Journal of Comparative Law 5 Google Scholar.

126 Birks op cit pp 1–22.

127 E Weinberg ‘The Juridical Classification of Obligations’ (SPTL Seminar Paper, 1996) p 5.

128 Ibid p 7.

129 See eg Lord Wilberforce in Cassell & Co Ltd v Broome [1972] AC 1027, 1114.

130 Abse v Smith [1986] QB 536, 545.

131 van de Kerchove, M and Ost, F Le droit ou les paradoxes du jeu (Presses Universitaires de France, 1992) p 57 Google Scholar.

132 See eg Miller v Jackson [1977] QB 966.

133 Overstone Ltd v Shipway [1962] 1 WLR 117; Jervis v Harris [1996] Ch 195.

134 Samuel and Rinkes op cit pp 277–293. Professor Birks (op cit) prefers to distinguish between compensatory and restitutionary damages; but had the historical distinction between debt and damages been consistently maintained (cf The Aldora [1975] QB 748, 751) the confusion about which Professor Birks complains (p 59) could be avoided: cf Samuel and Rinkes, pp 93–96.

135 Cf Dubouchet, P Sémiotique juridique (Presses Universitaires de France, 1990)Google Scholar.

136 See eg Lapoyade Deschamps, C ‘Le mythe de la responsabilité contractuelle en droit françis’ in Rose, F (ed) Failure of Contracts (Hart Publishing, 1997) pp 175–194 Google Scholar. See also Samuel and Rinkes op cit pp 24–26.

137 Parsons (Livestock) Ltd v Uttley Ingham & Co [1978] QB 791 at 801–804.

138 J Stapleton ‘A New “Seascape” for Obligations: Reclassification as the Basis of Measure of Damages’ (SPTL Seminar Paper, 1996).

139 Tony Weir points out that over 90% of contractual actions are claims in debt: T Weir, Droit des contrats, in J A Jolowicz (ed) Droit anglais (Dalloz, 2nd edn, 1992) p 140.

140 There are situations and types of damage where the distinction between the nature of the obligations can be important: see eg Weir, T A Casebook on Tort (London: Sweet & Maxwell, 8th edn, 1996) pp 109–112 Google Scholar.

141 Durand, D Le systémique (Presses Universitaires de France, 7th edn, 1996) pp 9–10 Google Scholar.

142 Lugan, J-C La systémique sociale (Presses Universitaires de France, 1993) p 37 Google Scholar.

143 On which see Leff, G A Medieval Thought: From St Augustine to Ockham (Penguin, 1958) pp 104–114, 279–294Google Scholar.

144 Piaget, J Le structuralisme (Presses Universitaires de France, 9th edn, 1987) pp 9–10 Google Scholar.

145 This is just what Blackstone did to some extent in his Commentaries: Lobban op cit p 34, 38–39.

146 Le Moigne, J-L Les épistémologies constructivistes (Presses Universitaires de France, 1995) pp 79–83 Google Scholar.

147 Wieacker op cit p 122.

148 Ibid pp 317–318.

149 Villey op cit pp 508–540.

150 Berthelot op cit pp 62–63.

151 Le Moigne op cit pp 30–31.

152 See generally Rudden, B, A Source-book on French Law (Oxford, 3rd edn, 1991) pp 278–288 Google Scholar. The methodology predates the codes themselves: A Watson The Making of the Civil Law (Harvard, 1981) pp 39–52. However, one should note the reality: M Lasser ‘Judicial (Self-) Portraits: Judicial Discourse in the French Legal System’ (1995) 104 Yale Law Journal 1325. But cf Samuel and Rinkes op cit pp 20–26.

153 See eg Fisher v Bell [1961] 1 QB 394.

154 This point is now recognised by some senior judges who advocate the use of policy to fill the gap between two logically defensible solutions: see eg Steyn LJ in Watts v Aldington (1993) Times, 16 December, quoted by Auld LJ in Jameson v CEGB [1997] 3 WLR 151 at 161–162.

155 Oléron, P Le raisonnement (Presses Universitaires de France, 4th edn, 1995) pp 78–80 Google Scholar.

156 See eg Hofstadter, D R Gödel, Escher, Bach: An Eternal Golden Braid (Penguin, pp 161–162. 1980) pp 684–719 Google Scholar.

157 Durand op cit p 13.

158 Teubner, G Law as an Autopoietic System (Oxford: Blackwell, 1993) pp 61–63 Google Scholar.

159 For a brief survey see Lugan op cit.

160 See generally Teubner op cit.

161 Collins, H ‘Legal Classifications as the Production of Knowledge Systems’ (SPTL Seminar Paper, 1996) pp 4–5 Google Scholar.

162 Ibid p 6.

163 Watson Making of the Civil Law op cit pp 14–22.

164 It has to be stressed that the idea of co-evolving sub-systems certainly goes far in beginning to model such gaps but the focusing on norms arguably keeps this kind of systems theory tied to the traditional Pandectist model: see eg van de Kerchove, M and Ost, F Legal System Between Order and Disorder (Oxford, 1994; trans I Stewart) p 105 Google Scholar.

165 [1990] 1 WLR 1195.

166 Collins op cit p 12.

167 Samuel Foundations op cit pp 235–237.

168 See eg Witz, C Droit privé allemand: 1. Actes juridiques, droits subjectifs (Litec, 1992) p 177 Google Scholar.

169 The relevant extract can be found in Samuel, G Sourcebook on Obligations and Legal Remedies (Cavendish, 1995) p 98 Google Scholar.

170 Some of the most relevant are helpfully collected in Freeman op cit pp 1308–1354.

171 Ibid.

172 Bechtel, W and Abrahamsen, A Connectionism and the Mind: An Introduction to Parallel Processing in Networks (Blackwell, 1991) pp 289–292 Google Scholar.

173 Van de Kerchove and Ost Legal System Between Order and Disorder op cit pp 65–72.

174 Penner op cit p 3.

175 Delacour, J Le cerveau et l'esprit (Presses Universitaires de France, 1995) p 37 Google Scholar.

176 Penner op cit p 3. One is reminded, of course, of Ockham and the debate between nominalism and universalism: Knowles, D The Evolution of Medieval Thought (Longman, 1962) pp 321–322 Google Scholar.

177 Delacour op cit p 34. For a more thorough analysis see Bechtel and Abrahamsen op cit pp 147–163.

178 Delacour op cit p 34.

179 Ibid pp 39, 104–122; Bechtel and Abrahamsen op cit p 235.

180 [1980] AC 827.

181 [1978] 1 WLR 856.

182 See generally Samuel Foundations op cit pp 204–207.

183 Treitel, G H The Law of Contract (London: Sweet & Maxwell, 9th edn, 1995) pp 70, 202Google Scholar.

184 See eg Stovin v Wise [1996] AC 923.

185 See eg Alcock v Chief Constable of South Yorkshire [1992] 1 AC 310.

186 See eg Animals Act 1971.

187 Samuel Foundations op cit pp 231–234.

188 Grant v Australian Knitting Mills Ltd [1936] AC 85.

189 Durand op cit p 53.

190 Caparo Industries v Dickman [1990] 2 AC 605. For the inductive and deductive method see Lord Diplock in Home Office v Dorset Yacht Co [1970] AC 1004 at 1058–1059.

191 FA & AB Ltd v Lupton [1972] AC 634 at 658–659.

192 Granger op cit p 111.

193 See eg Lord Denning MR in Spartan Steel & Alloys Ltd v Martin & Co [1973] 1 QB 27 at 35. Lord Denning MR appeared to contradict his view on parasitic damages in Jackson v Horizon Holidays Ltd [1975] 1 WLR 1468.

194 Bouchon-Meunier, B and Nguyen, HT Les incertitudes duns les systémes intelligents (Presses Universitaires de France, 1996) pp 7–11 Google Scholar.

195 See eg Perelman, Ch Logique juridique: Nouvelle rhéorique (Dalloz, 2nd edn, 1979)Google Scholar; Bergel op cit pp 261–286; Alexy, R A Theory of Legal Argumentation: The Theory of Rational Discourse as Theory of Legal Justification (Oxford, 1989; trans R Adler and N MacCormick)Google Scholar; C M Stamatis Argumenter en droit: Une théorie critique de 1 argumentation juridique (Publisud, 1995).

196 Lévy-Leblond, J-M ‘Symétrie et espace-temps’ in various authors La symétrie aujourd'hui (Éitions du Seuil, 1989) p 64 Google Scholar.

197 See eg Lord Simonds in Read v J Lyons & Co [1947] AC 156 at 182.

198 The rule theorist will, of course, want to link reasoning by analogy with reasoning from rules and principles: see eg MacCormick, N Legal Reasoning and Legal Theory (Oxford, 1978) p 186 Google Scholar.

199 [1947] AC 156.

200 See eg Lord Macmillan at 171, 175.

201 Samuel Foundations op cit pp 147–154, 199–202.

202 [1996] 3 WLR 626.

203 At 628–629.

204 At 629.

205 On which see eg Beswick v Beswick [1966] Ch 538; cf [1968] AC 58; Lipkin Gorman v Karpnale Ltd [1991] 2 AC 548.

206 See also Ex p Island Records [1978] Ch 122.

207 For a recent example where property notions (possession and ownership) are dependent upon the obligations notion of trespass see Waverley BC v Fletcher [1996] QB 334.

208 Atiyah op cit pp 764–778.

209 See Lawson, F H Remedies of English Law (London: Butterworth, 2nd edn, 1980) pp 147–160 Google Scholar.

210 It is particularly important with respect to real security: Lawson, F H and Rudden, B The Law of Property (Oxford, 2nd edn, 1982) pp 188–204 Google Scholar. See also Bridge, M Personal Property Law (London: Blackstone, 2nd edn, 1996) pp 8–9 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

211 [1972] 1 WLR 1009.

212 Treitel, G H Remedies for Breach of Contract (Oxford, 1988) p 245 Google Scholar.

213 Bachelard op cit.

214 See eg Samuel and Rinkes pp 322–325.

215 See eg Weir Casebook op cit pp 646–648.

216 See Samuel and Rinkes pp 24–26.

217 See generally A Watson ‘The Importance of “Nutshells”’ op cit.

218 See eg Goulet, J ‘Quelques variations sur le modéle thermodynamique et le droit artificiel’ in Bourcier, D and Mackay, P (eds) Lire le droit: Langue, texte, cognition (LGDJ, 1992) p 38 Google Scholar. See also Bourcier, D La décision artificielle: le droit, la machine et l'humain (Presses Universitaires de France, 1995) pp 205–208 Google Scholar.

219 FA & AB Ltd v Lupton [1972] AC 634 at 658–659.

220 Atias Épistémologie du droit op cit pp 21–28.

221 Weinrib Seminar Paper op cit p 1.

222 Cf Blanché op cit p 29.

223 Professor Birks (op cit), to his credit, is trying to steer a middle course; but in doing so it is arguable that his theoretical underpinning is extremely weak (for example his use of notions such as ‘logic’ and ‘democratic bargain’ raise more questions than they answer). In fairness, however, his important essay cannot properly be discussed in a short note; what is needed is a separate and detailed response.

224 Again Birk's paper (op cit) does not really address in any serious way the epistemological functions of taxonomy and rule application. For example to conclude that the case of Spring v Guardian Assurance PlC [1995] 2 AC 296 presents ‘a conundrum of disorderly categories’ which ‘disfigures the law’ (p 6) because it recognises in a single set of facts the torts of defamation (‘an infringement of an interest in reputation’) and negligence (‘a wrong named by reference to a kind of fault’) is to suggest that legal categorisation should be alternative and mutually exclusive. This in turn makes assumptions about the nature of fact in relation to rule systems. Now ‘facts are never evident’ and they ‘never directly thrust themselves upon one, and it can be said that they exist neither a priori nor separately’ since they ‘have sense only in relation to a system of thought, through a pre-existing theory’ ( Astolfi, J-P and Develay, M La didactique des sciences (Presses Universitaires de France, 4th edn, 1996) p 25 Google Scholar. What Professor Birks seems to be advocating is a return to the axiomatic period of science which characterized the mos geometricus. Artificial Intelligence research has shown, for law, that such an epistemological model is misconceived to say the least since it is, inter aha, to make false assumptions about the nature of fact (see eg Dreyfus op cit). On concurrence generally, if Professor Birks wishes to create an axiomatic model where concurrence is excluded, then much thought will have to be invested into the question of alternative versus cumulative categories which might be bad news for, say, labour and consumer lawyers. Nevertheless, Birks is at least attempting to connect practice with theory and such efforts are to be welcomed.

225 Blanché op cit p 33.

226 Watson ‘Nutshells’ op cit at p 21.

227 Villey op cit p 540.

228 P Legrand ‘How to Compare Now’ (1996) 16 Legal Studies 232, 238.