Hostname: page-component-77c89778f8-cnmwb Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-07-18T13:27:26.096Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

The Precedent That Wasn't: College Hate Speech Codes and the Two Faces of Legal Compliance

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  02 April 2024

Abstract

This article undertakes an empirical investigation into the development and persistence of college hate speech codes, asking why so many elite institutions of higher learning either retained or created speech policies that contradicted a national series of court cases. The method is both quantitative and qualitative, looking for broad patterns of response among the schools and also explaining why individual institutions did or did not comply with the court decisions. In the end, the article not only teases out the why of compliance decisions but also provides a greater understanding of the relationship between legal compliance and judicial impact.

Type
Research Article
Copyright
Copyright © 2001 Law and Society Association.

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

References

Altman, Andrew (1993) “Liberalism and Campus Hate Speech.” In J. Arthur & A. Shapiro, eds., Campus Wars: Multiculturalism and the Politics of Difference. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.Google Scholar
American Civil Liberties Union (1989) “Policy Statement on Free Speech and Bias on College Campuses.” In S. Coliver, ed., Striking a Balance: Hate Speech Freedom of Expression and Non-Discrimination. London: Article 19.Google Scholar
Arthur, John, & Shapiro, Amy (1995) Campus Wars: Multi-Culturalism and the Politics of Difference. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.Google Scholar
Baum, Lawrence (1977) “Policy Goals in Judicial Gatekeeping: A Proximity Model of Discretionary Jurisdiction,” 21 American J. of Political Science 1335.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bond, Jon R., & Johnson, Charles A. (1982) “Implementing a Permissive Policy: Hospital Abortion Services after Roe v. Wade” 26 American J. of Political Science 124.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bowen, Lauren (1995) “Do Court Decisions Matter?” In Lee Epstein, ed., Contemplating Courts. Washington, DC: CQ Press.Google Scholar
Brigham, John (1996) The Constitution of Interests: Beyond the Politics of Rights. New York: New York Univ. Press.Google Scholar
Browne, Kingsley R. (1991) “Title VII as Censorship: Hostile-Environment Harassment and the First Amendment,” 53 Ohio State Law J. 481551.Google Scholar
Caldeira, Gregory A., & Gibson, James (1992) “The Etiology of Public Support for the Supreme Court,” 36 American J. of Political Science 635–64.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Canon, Bradley C. (1992) “The Supreme Court as a Cheerleader in Politico-Moral Disputes,” 54 J. of Politics 637–53.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Canon, Bradley C., & Johnson, Charles A. (1999) Judicial Policies: Implementation and Impact, 2d ed., Washington, DC: CQ Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chronicle of Higher Education (2001) “Fact File. This Year's Freshmen at 4-Year Colleges: A Statistical Profile,” January 26: 48–49.Google Scholar
Dolbeare, Kenneth M., & Hammond, Philip E. (1971) The School Prayer Decisions: From Court Policy to Local Practice. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
D'Souza, Dinesh (1992) Illiberal Education: The Politics of Race and Sex on Campus. New York: Vintage Books.Google Scholar
Edelman, Lauren (1990) “Legal Environments and Organizational Governance: The Expansion of Due Process Rights,” 95 American J. of Sociology 1401–40.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Edelman, Lauren (1992) “Legal Ambiguity and Symbolic Structures: Organizational Mediation of Civil Rights Law,” 97 American J. of Sociology 1531–76.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Epstein, Lee, ed. (1995) Contemplating Courts. Washington, DC: CQ Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ewick, Patricia, & Silbey, Susan S. (1998) The Common Place of Law: Stories from Everyday Life. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Freivogel, William H. (1992) “Ruling Aimed at Hate-Speech Laws,” St. Louis Post-Dispatch, June 24, p. 1C.Google Scholar
Giles, Michael W., & Gatlin, Douglas S. (1980) “Mass-Level Compliance with Public Policy: The Case of School Desegregation,” 42 J. of Politics 42:722–46.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gould, Jonathan B. (1999) Symbolic Speech: Legal Mobilization and the Rise of Collegiate Hate Speech Codes. Ann Arbor: UMI Dissertation Services.Google Scholar
Graber, Doris A. (1980) Mass Media and American Politics. Washington, DC: CQ Press.Google Scholar
Grey, Thomas C. (1996a) “Civil Rights Versus Civil Liberties: The Case of Discriminatory Verbal Harassment.” In S. J. Heyman, ed., Hate Speech and the Constitution. New York: Garland Publishing.Google Scholar
Grey, Thomas C. (1996b) “How to Write a Speech Code Without Really Trying: Reflections on the Stanford Experience,” 29 U.C. Davis Law Rev. 891957.Google Scholar
Hentoff, Nat (1995) “Against the Odds: A Historic Free Speech Victory,” Village Voice, May 2.Google Scholar
Johnson, Charles A. (1979) “Lower Court Reactions to Supreme Court Decisions: A Quantitative Examination,” 23 American J. of Political Science 792804.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Johnson, Charles A., & Canon, Bradley C. (1984) Judicial Policies: Implementation & Impact. Washington, DC: CQ Press.Google Scholar
Kagan, Elena (1994) “Regulation of Hate Speech and Pornography after RAV.” In L. Lederer & R. Delgado, eds., The Price We Pay: The Case Against Racist Speech, Hate Propaganda, and Pornography. New York: Hill & Wang.Google Scholar
Kluger, Richard (1975) Simple Justice. New York: Knopf.Google Scholar
Korwar, Arati R. (1994) War of Words: Speech Codes at Public Colleges and Universities. Nashville, TN: Freedom Forum First Amendment Center.Google Scholar
Lawrence, David G. (1976) “Procedural Norms and Tolerance: A Reassessment,” 70 American Political Science Rev. 80100.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lederer, Laura, & Delgado, Richard, eds. (1994) The Price We Pay: The Case Against Racist Speech, Hate Propaganda, and Pornography. New York: Hill & Wang.Google Scholar
Lindgren, Janet S. (1983) “Beyond Cases: Reconsidering Judicial Review,” Wisconsin Law Rev. 583639.Google Scholar
The MacNeil/Lehrer NewsHour (1992) June 26.Google Scholar
Milner, Neal (1971) The Court and Local Law Enforcement. Beverly Hills: Sage.Google Scholar
Mintrom, Michael (1997) “Policy Entrepreneurs and the Diffusion of Policy,” 41 American J. of Political Science 738–70.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mnookin, Robert, & Kornhauser, Lewis (1979) “Bargaining in the Shadow of Law: The Case of Divorce,” 88 Yale Law J. 950.Google Scholar
MSNBC (2001) “Court Strikes Down Harassment Policy,” MSNBC.com, February 15.Google Scholar
Muir, William K. (1967) Prayer in Public Schools: Law and Attitudinal Change. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Murphy, Walter (1959) “Lower Court Checks on Supreme Court Power,” 53 American Political Science Rev. 1017–31.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nightline (1991) “‘Political Correctness’ on U.S. Campuses,” May 31.Google Scholar
Olson, Mancer (1969) “Towards a Mature Social Science,” 27 International Studies Quart. 2937.Google Scholar
Patric, Gordon (1957) “The Impact of Court Decisions: Aftermath of the McCullom Case,” 6 J. of Public Law 455–64.Google Scholar
Rosenberg, Gerald N. (1988) “Protecting Fundamental Political Liberties: The Constitution in Context.” Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Political Science Association, Washington, DC.Google Scholar
Rosenberg, Gerald N. (1991) The Hollow Hope: Can Courts Bring about Social Change? Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Rosenberg, Gerald N. (1995) “The Real World of Constitutional Rights: The Supreme Court and the Implementation of the Abortion Decisions.” In L. Epstein, ed., Contemplating Courts. Washington, DC: CQ Press.Google Scholar
Sax, Linda J., Astin, Alexander W., Korn, William S. & Mahoney, Kathryn M. (1996) The American Freshman: National Norms for Fall 1996. Los Angeles: Higher Education Research Institute.Google Scholar
Smith, Rogers M. (1988) “Political Jurisprudence, The ‘New Institutionalism,‘ and the Future of Public Law,” 82 American Political Science Rev. 89108.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sorauf, Frank (1959) “Zorach v. Clauson: The Impact of a Supreme Court Decision,” 53 American Political Science Rev. 777–91.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Spriggs, James F., II (1996) “The Supreme Court and Federal Administrative Agencies: A Resource-Based Theory and Analysis of Judicial Impact,” 40 American J. of Political Science 1122–51.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
U.S. Senate, Committee on Labor and Human Resources (1992) Hearing on university responses to racial and sexual harassment on campuses. 102nd Congress (2d sess.) September 10.Google Scholar
Walker, Samuel (1994) Hate Speech: The History of an American Controversy. Lincoln, NE: Univ. of Nebraska Press.Google Scholar
Wasby, Stephen L. (1970) The Impact of the United States Supreme Court: Some Perspectives. Homewood, IL: Dorsey Press.Google Scholar

Cases Cited

Beauharnais v. Illinois, 343 U.S. 250 (1952).Google Scholar
Chaplinsky v. New Hampshire, 315 U.S. 358 (1942).Google Scholar
Corry et al. v. Stanford University, no. 740309 (Cal. Super. filed Feb. 27, 1995).Google Scholar
Dambrot et al. v. Central Michigan University, 839 F. Supp. 477 (E.D. Mich. 1993).Google Scholar
Doe v. University of Michigan, 721 F. Supp. 852 (E.D. Mich. 1989).Google Scholar
R.A. V. v. City of St. Paul, Minnesota, 112 S.Ct. 2538 (1992).Google Scholar
The UWM Post et al. v. Board of Regents of the University of Wisconsin System, 774 F. Supp. 1163 (E.D. Wis. 1991).Google Scholar

References

Atkins, Burton M. (1993) “Alternative Models of Appeal Mobilization in Judicial Hierarchies,” 37 American J. of Political Science 780–98.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Atkins, Burton M., & Glick, Henry R. (1974) “Formal Judicial Recruitment and State Supreme Court Decisions,” 2 American Politics Quart. 427–49.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Atkins, Burton M., & Glick, Henry R. (1976) “Environmental and Structural Variables as Determinants of Issues in State Courts of Last Resort,” 20 American J. of Political Science 97115.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barker, Lucius (1967) “Third Parties in Litigation: A Systemic View of the Judicial Function,” 29 J. of Politics, February, 41–69.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brace, Paul, & Hall, Melinda Gann (1995) “Studying Courts Comparatively: The View from the American States,” 48 Political Research Quart. 529.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brace, Paul, & Hall, Melinda Gann (2000).Google Scholar
Brennan, William J. Jr. (1983) “Some Thoughts on the Supreme Court's Workload,” 66 Judicature 230–34.Google Scholar
Caldeira, Gregory A., & Wright, John R. (1988) “Organized Interests and Agenda-Setting in the U.S. Supreme Court,” 82 American Political Science Rev. December, 1109–27.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Caldeira, Gregory A., & Wright, John R. (1990) “Amici Curiae before the Supreme Court: Who Participates, When, and How Much?” 52 J. of Politics, August, 782–806.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Canon, Bradley C., & Jaros, Dean (1970) “External Variables, Institutional Structure, and Dissent on State Supreme Courts,” 4 Polity 185200.Google Scholar
Champagne, Anthony, & Haydel, Judith, eds. (1993) Judicial Reform in the States. Lanham, MD: Univ. Press of America.Google Scholar
Comparato, Scott (1999) “Interest Groups, Amicus Briefs, and State Supreme Courts: The Importance of Institutions,” 20 American Rev. of Politics, Summer, 181–200.Google Scholar
Epp, Charles R. (1998) The Rights Revolution: Lawyers, Activists, and Supreme Courts in Comparative Perspective. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Epstein, Lee (1990) “Interest Groups and the Courts,” in Gates, J. B. & Johnson, C. A., eds., The American Courts: A Critical Assessment. Washington, DC: CQ Press.Google Scholar
Epstein, Lee (1994) “Exploring the Participation of Organized Interests in State Court Litigation,” 47 Political Research Quart. 335–52.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Erickson, Robert S., Wright, Gerald C. & McIver, John P. (1993) Statehouse Democracy: Public Opinion and Policy in the American States. New York: Cambridge Univ. Press.Google Scholar
Farole, Donald J. Jr. (1998) Interest Groups and Judicial Federalism: Organizational Litigation in State Judiciaries. Westport, CT: Praeger.Google Scholar
Farole, Donald J. Jr. (1999) “Reexamining Litigant Success in State Supreme Courts,” 33 Law & Society Review 1043–57.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Galanter, Marc (1974) “Why the ‘Haves’ Come Out Ahead: Speculations on the Limits of Legal Change,” 9 Law & Society Rev. 95160.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Galanter, Marc (1975) Afterword, “Explaining Litigation,” 9 Law & Society Review 347–68.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Glick, Henry R., & Pruet, George W. Jr. (1986) “Dissent in State Supreme Courts: Patterns and Correlates of Conflict,” In S. Goldman & C. Lamb, eds., Judicial Conflict and Consensus: Behavioral Studies of American Appellate Courts. Lexington, KY: Univ. Press of Kentucky.Google Scholar
Gray, Virginia, & Lowery, David (1998) “Representational Concentration and Interest Community Size: A Population Ecology Interpretation,” 51 Political Research Quart. 919–44.Google Scholar
Grossman, Joel B., Kritzer, Herbert M., Bumiller, Kristin, Sarat, Austin, McDougal, Stephen & Miller, Richard (1982) “Dimensions of Institutional Participation: Who Uses the Courts, and How?” 44 J. of Politics, February, 86–114.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harrington, Christine B., & Ward, Daniel S. (1995) “Patterns of Appellate Litigation,” in Epstein, L., ed., Contemplating Courts. Washington, DC: Congressional Quarterly Press.Google Scholar
Kagen, Robert, Cartwright, Bliss, Friedman, Lawrence M. & Wheeler, Stanton (1977) “The Business of State Supreme Courts, 1870–1970,” 30 Stanford Law Review 121–56.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McGuire, Kevin T., & Caldeira, Gregory A. (1993) “Lawyers, Organized Interests, and the Law of Obscenity: Agenda-Setting in the Supreme Court,” 89 American Political Science Rev., September, 717–26.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Murphy, Walter F. (1964) Elements of Judicial Strategy. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
O'Connor, Karen (1980) Women's Organizations' Use of the Courts. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books.Google Scholar
Pacelle, Richard L. Jr. (1991) The Transformation of the Supreme Court's Agenda: From the New Deal to the Reagan Administration. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.Google Scholar
Pacelle, Richard L. Jr. (1995) “The Dynamics and Determinants of Agenda Change in the Rehnquist Court,” in Epstein, L., ed., Contemplating Courts. Washington, DC: Congressional Quarterly Press.Google Scholar
Perry, H. W. Jr. (1991) Deciding to Decide: Agenda-Setting in the United States Supreme Court. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press.Google Scholar
Peterson, Anne (1999) “Examining the Role of Representational Bias Between Interest Groups and State Supreme Courts,” 20 American Rev. of Politics, Summer, 201–12.Google Scholar
Provine, Doris Marie (1980) Case Selection in the United States Supreme Court. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Rohde, David W., & Spaeth, Harold J. (1976) Supreme Court Decision Making. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman & Company.Google Scholar
Salokar, Rebecca Mae (1992) The Solicitor General: The Politics of Law. Philadelphia: Temple Univ. Press.Google Scholar
Schubert, Glendon (1962) “Policy Without Law: An Extension of the Certiorari Game,” 14 Stanford Law Rev. 284327.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Segal, Jeffrey A. (1988) “Amicus Briefs by the Solicitor General during the Warren and Burger Courts,” 41 Western Political Quart., March, 134–44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sheehan, Reginald S., Mishler, William & Songer, Donald R. (1992) “Ideology, Status, and the Differential Success of Direct Parties Before the Supreme Court,” 86 American Political Science Rev. 464–71.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Songer, Donald R., & Kuersten, Ashlyn (1995) “The Success of Amici in State Supreme Courts,” 48 Political Research Quart. 3142.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Songer, Donald R., & Sheehan, Reginald (1992) “Who Wins on Appeal? Upperdogs and Underdogs in the United States Courts of Appeals,” 36 American J. of Political Science 235–58.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Songer, Donald R., Kuersten, Ashlyn & Kaheny, Erin (2000) “Why the Haves Don't Always Come Out Ahead: Repeat Players Meet Amici Curiae for the Disadvantaged,” 55 Political Research Quart. 537–56.Google Scholar
Songer, Donald R., Sheehan, Reginald S. & Haire, Susan Brodie (1999) “Do the ‘Haves’ Come Out Ahead over Time? Applying Galanter's Framework to Decisions of the U.S. Courts of Appeals, 1925–1988,” 33 Law & Society Rev. 811–32.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Spriggs, James F., II, & Wahlbeck, Paul J. (1997) “Amicus Curiae and the Role of Information at the Supreme Court,” 50 Political Research Quart., June, 365–86.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tanenhaus, Joseph, Schick, Marvin, Muraskin, Matthew & Rosen, Daniel (1963) “The Supreme Court's Certiorari Jurisdiction: Cue Theory,” in G. Schubert, ed., Judicial Decision Making. New York: Free Press.Google Scholar
Wanner, Craig (1974) “The Public Ordering of Private Relations: Part One: Initiating Civil Cases in Urban Trial Courts,” 8 Law & Society Rev. 421–40.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wheeler, Stanton, Cartwright, Bliss, Kagan, Robert A. & Friedman, Lawrence M. (1987) “Do the ‘Haves’ Come Out Ahead? Winning and Losing in State Supreme Courts, 1870–1970,” 21 Law & Society Rev. 403–45.CrossRefGoogle Scholar