Hostname: page-component-848d4c4894-nmvwc Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-06-20T05:13:49.322Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

The Effects of Civil Hate Speech Laws: Lessons from Australia

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  01 January 2024

Katharine Gelber  and
Luke McNamara
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

This article examines the effects of hate speech laws in Australia. Triangulating data from primary and secondary sources, we examine five hypothesized effects: whether the laws provide a remedy to targets of hate speech, encourage more respectful speech, have an educative or symbolic effect, have a chilling effect, or create “martyrs.” We find the laws provide a limited remedy in the complaints mechanisms, provide a framework for direct community advocacy, and that knowledge of the laws exists in public discourse. However, the complaints mechanism imposes a significant enforcement burden on targeted communities, who still regularly experience hate speech. We find a reduction in the expression of prejudice in mediated outlets, but not on the street. We find no evidence of a chilling effect and we find the risk of free speech martyrs to be marginal. We draw out the implications of these findings for other countries.

Type
Articles
Information
Law & Society Review , Volume 49 , Issue 3 , September 2015 , pp. 631 - 664
Copyright
© 2015 Law and Society Association.

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

We acknowledge funding from the Australian Research Council (DP1096721), and ethical clearance from the Univ. of Queensland (2011000341). We thank Jess Todhunter, Dave Eden, Sorcha Tormey and Ellyse Fenton for research assistance, and acknowledge the important work undertaken by Cultural and Indigenous Research Centre Australia (CIRCA). We are grateful also for the assistance of the relevant authorities and community organizations from whom we obtained data.

References

References

Abbott, Tony (2012) “Freedom Wars,” Address to the Institute of Public Affairs, 6 August. Available at: http://www.justinian.com.au/storage/pdf/Abbott_FreedomWars.pdf (accessed 5 March 2015).Google Scholar
ABC News (2014) “Racial Discrimination Act Changes Receive Little Support in new Nielsen poll,” ABC News, 14 April. Available at: http://www.abc.net.au/news/2014-04-14/race-law-changes-receive-little-support-in-new-poll/5387452 (accessed 5 March 2015).Google Scholar
Akerman, Pia (2009) “Denier in jail after losing his appeal,” The Australian, 14 August. p. 3.Google Scholar
Amnesty International (2012) Written contribution to the thematic discussion on Racist Hate Speech and Freedom of Opinion and Expression organized by the United Nations Committee on Elimination of Racial Discrimination, 28 August. Available at: http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/HRBodies/CERD/Discussions/Racisthatespeech/AmnestyInternational.pdf (accessed 5 March 2015).Google Scholar
Aroney, Nicholas (2006) “The Constitutional (In)validity of Religious Vilification Laws,” 34 Federal Law Rev. 287–318.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Aston, Heath (2014) “Holocaust denier Frederick Toben backs George Brandis’ plans for discrimination law,” Sydney Morning Herald, 13 May. Available at: http://www.smh.com.au/federal-politics/political-news/holocaust-denier-frederick-toben-backs-george-brandis-plans-for-discrimination-law-0140513-zrbnx.html (accessed 5 March 2015).Google Scholar
Australia, Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission (AHREOC) (1991) Racist Violence: Report of the National Inquiry into Racist Violence. Canberra: Australian Government Publishing Service.Google Scholar
Australia, Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission (AHREOC) (1998) Article 18: Freedom of Religion and Belief. Sydney: HREOC.Google Scholar
Australian Law Reform Commission (ALRC) (1992) Multiculturalism and the Law. Canberra: Australian Government Publishing Service.Google Scholar
Baumgartner, Frank, & Leech, Beth (1998) Basic Interests: The Importance of Groups in Politics and in Political Science. Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Berman, Alan, & Robinson, Shirleene (2010) Speaking Out: Stopping Homophobic and Transphobic Abuse in Queensland. Bowen Hills: Australian Academic Press.Google Scholar
Brandis, George (2014) Media Release by the Attorney General and Minister for the Arts: Racial Discrimination Act, 25 March. Available at: http://www.attorneygeneral.gov.au/Mediareleases/Pages/2014/First%20Quarter/25March2014-RacialDiscriminationAct.aspx (accessed 5 March 2015).Google Scholar
Breuning, Marijke (2011) “Content Analysis,” in Ishiyama, , , J., & Breuning, M., eds., 21st Century Political Science: A Reference Handbook. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. 490–96.Google Scholar
Brown, Alexander (2015) Hate Speech Law: A Philosophical Examination. Abingdon: Routledge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Browne, William (1990) “Organized Interests and Their Issue Niches: A Search for Pluralism in a Policy Domain,” 52 J. of Politics 356–90.Google Scholar
Burns, Gary (2013) Interview conducted by authors, unpublished.Google Scholar
Cahill, Desmond, et al. (2004) Religion: Cultural Diversity and Safeguarding Australia. Canberra: Department of Immigration and Multicultural and Indigenous Affairs, Australian Multicultural Foundation, World Conference of Religions for Peace, RMIT Univ., Monash Univ.Google Scholar
Chapman, Anna (2004) “Australian Racial Hatred Law: Some Comments on Reasonableness and Adjudicative Method in Complaints Brought by Indigenous People,” 20 Monash Univ. Law Rev. 27–48.Google Scholar
Chapman, Anna, & Kelly, Kathleen (2005) “Australian Anti-Vilification Law: A Discussion of the Public/Private and the Work Relations Context,” 27 Sydney Law Rev. 203–36.Google Scholar
Chesterman, Michael (2000) Freedom of Speech in Australian Law: A Delicate Plant? Aldershot: Ashgate.Google Scholar
Chilton, Paul, & Schäffner, Christina (1997) “Discourse and Politics,” in van Dijk, , , T., ed., Discourse as Social Interaction. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. 206–30.Google Scholar
Delgado, Richard (1993) “If He Hollers Let Him Go: Regulating Racist Speech on Campus,” in Matsuda, , Lawrence, M., C., Delgado, R., & Crenshaw, K., eds., Words That Wound: Critical Race Theory, Assaultive Speech, and the First Amendment. Colorado: Westview Press. 53–88.Google Scholar
Flahvin, , , Anne (1995) “Can Legislation Prohibiting Hate Speech be Justified in Light of Free Speech Principles?” 18 Univ. of New South Wales Law J. 327–40.Google Scholar
Gelber, Katharine (2000) “Implementing Racial Anti-Vilification Laws in New South Wales, 1989-1998: A Study,” 59(1) Australian J. of Public Administration 13–23.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gelber, Katharine (2002) Speaking Back: The Free Speech versus Hate Speech Debate. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gelber, Katharine (2007). “Hate Speech and the Australian Legal and Political Landscape,” in Gelber, , , K., & Stone, A., eds., Hate Speech and Freedom of Speech in Australia. Sydney: Federation Press. 2–19.Google Scholar
Gelber, , , Katharine, & Stone, Adrienne, eds. (2007a) Hate Speech and Freedom of Speech in Australia. Sydney: Federation Press.Google Scholar
Gelber, Katharine, & Stone, Adrienne (2007b) “Introduction,” in Gelber, , , K., & Stone, A., eds., Hate Speech and Freedom of Speech in Australia. Sydney: Federation Press. xiii–xvii.Google Scholar
Gelber, Katharine, & McNamara, Luke (2013) “Freedom of Speech and Racial Vilification in Australia: the ‘Bolt’ case in Public Discourse,” 48(4) Australian J. of Political Science 470–84.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gelber, Katharine, & McNamara, Luke (2014a) “Private Litigation to address a Public Wrong: A study of Australia's regulatory response to ‘hate speech’,’’ 33(3) Civil Justice Q. 307–34.Google Scholar
Gelber, Katharine, & McNamara, Luke (2014b) “Changes in the Expression of Prejudice in Public Discourse in Australia: Assessing the Impact of Hate Speech Laws on Letters to the Editor 1992-2010,” 20(1) Australian J. of Human Rights 99–128.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gilens, Martin, & Page, Benjamin (2014) “Testing Theories of American Politics: Elites, Groups, and Average Citizens,” 12(3) Perspectives on Politics 564–81.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gould, Jon (2005) Speak No Evil: The Triumph of Hate Speech Regulation. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grimm, Dieter (2009) “The Holocaust Denial Decision of the Federal Constitutional Court of Germany,” in Hare, , , I., & Weinstein, J., eds., Extreme Speech and Democracy. New York: Oxford Univ. Press. 557–61.Google Scholar
Heinze, Eric (2013) “Hate Speech and the Normative Foundations of Regulation,” 9 International J. of Law in Context 590–617.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Heinze, Eric, & Phillipson, Gavin (2014) Debating Hate Speech. Oxford: Hart Publishing.Google Scholar
Hennessy, Nancy, & Smith, Paula (1994) “Have We Got it Right? NSW Racial Vilification Law Five Years On,” 1 Australian J. of Human Rights 249–64.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Heyman, Steven (2009) “Hate Speech, Public Discourse and the First Amendment,” in Hare, , , I., & Weinstein, J., eds., Extreme Speech and Democracy. New York: Oxford Univ. Press. 158–81.Google Scholar
Hillier, Lynne, Turner, Alina, & Mitchell, Anne (2005) Writing Themselves In Again: 6 Years On. The 2nd National Report on the Sexual Health and Well-being of Same Sex Attracted Young People in Australia. Melbourne: Australian Research Centre in Sex, Health and Society.Google Scholar
Hillier, Lynne et al. (1998) “Writing Themselves,” in A National Report on the Sexuality, Health and Well-being of Same Sex Attracted Young People. Melbourne: National Centre in HIV Social Research.Google Scholar
Hillier, Lynne et al. (2010) Writing Themselves In 3: The Third National Study on the Sexual Health and Well-being of Same Sex Attracted and Gender Questioning Young People. Melbourne: Australian Research Centre in Sex, Health and Society.Google Scholar
HIV/AIDS Legal Centre (HALC) (2012) Interview conducted by authors, Sydney, 11 October.Google Scholar
Inner City Legal Centre (ICLC) (2011) Outing Injustice: Understanding the Legal Needs of Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender and Intersex Communities in New South Wales. Sydney: ILCL.Google Scholar
Inner City Legal Centre (ICLC) (2013) Personal correspondence with authors, unpublished.Google Scholar
Jacobs, James B., & Potter, Kimberly (1998) Hate Crimes: Criminal Law and Identity Politics. New York: Oxford Univ. Press.Google Scholar
Jenness, Valerie, & Grattet, Ryken (2001) Making Hate a Crime: From Social Movement to Law Enforcement. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.Google Scholar
Jessup, Brad (2001) “Five Years On: A Critical Evaluation of the Racial Hatred Act 1995,” 6 Deakin Law Rev. 91–111.Google Scholar
Jones, Jeremy (2013) Interview conducted by authors, unpublished.Google Scholar
Jones, Jeremy (2011) Report on Anti-Semitism in Australia: 1 October 2010-30 September 2011. Sydney: Australia/Israel & Jewish Affairs Council & Executive Council of Australian Jewry.Google Scholar
Landis, J. Richard, & Koch, Gary (1977) “The measurement of observer agreement for categorical data,” 33 Biometrics 159–74.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lawrence, Frederick (1999) Punishing Hate: Bias Crimes Under American Law. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Maitra, Ishani, & McGowan, Mary Kate (2012a) “Introduction and Overview,” in Maitra, , , I., & McGowan, M. K., eds., Speech and Harm: Controversies Over Free Speech. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press. 1–23.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ishani, Maitra, & Mary, Kate McGowan eds. (2012b) Speech and Harm: Controversies Over Free Speech. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.Google Scholar
Marr, David (2009) “No Victor in Fight Over Inflammatory Talkback,” Sydney Morning Herald, 28 December.Google Scholar
Matsuda, Mari (1993) “Public Response to Hate Speech: Considering the Victim's Story,” in Matsuda, , Lawrence, M., C., Delgado, R., & Crenshaw, K., eds., Words that Wound: Critical Race Theory, Assaultive Speech, and the First Amendment. Colorado: Westview Press. 17–52.Google Scholar
Mbongo, Pascal (2009) “Hate Speech, Extreme Speech, and Collective Defamation in French Law,” in Hare, , , I., & Weinstein, J., eds., Extreme Speech and Democracy. New York: Oxford Univ. Press. 221–36.Google Scholar
McNamara, Lawrence (1998) “The Things You Need: Pauline Hanson, Racial Hatred and the Limits of the Law,” 2 Southern Cross Law Rev. 92–123.Google Scholar
McNamara, Luke (1994) “The Merits of Racial Hatred Laws: Beyond Free Speech,” 4 Griffith Law Rev. 29–59.Google Scholar
McNamara, Luke (1997) “A Profile of Racial Vilification Complaints Lodged with the NSW Anti-Discrimination Board,” 2 International J. of Discrimination and the Law 349–78.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McNamara, Luke (2002) Regulating Racism: Racial Vilification Laws in Australia. Sydney: Inst. of Criminology.Google Scholar
McNamara, Luke (2005a) “Negotiating the Contours of Unlawful Hate Speech: Regulation Under Provincial Human Rights Laws in Canada,” 38(1) Univ. of British Columbia Law Rev. 1–82.Google Scholar
McNamara, Luke (2005b) “The Protection of Political Communication Under the Australian Constitution,” 28 Univ. of New South Wales Law J. 30–68.Google Scholar
McNamara, , , Luke (2007) Human Rights Controversies: The Impact of Legal Form. Abingdon: Routledge-Cavendish.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Meagher, Dan (2004) “So Far So Good? A Critical Evaluation of Racial Vilification Laws in Australia,” 32 Federal Law Rev. 225–53.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Meagher, Dan (2005) “The Protection of Political Communication Under the Australian Constitution”, 28 Univ. of New South Wales Law J. 30–68.Google Scholar
Merritt, , , Chris (2013) “Don't Fiddle with Onus of Proof,” The Australian, 19 April. p. 25.Google Scholar
Molnar, Peter (2009) “Towards Improved Law and Policy on ‘Hate Speech’—The ‘Clear and Present Danger’ Test in Hungary,” in Hare, , , I., & Weinstein, J., eds., Extreme Speech and Democracy. New York: Oxford Univ. Press. 237–64.Google Scholar
NSW Legislative Council (2013) Racial Vilification Law in NSW. Sydney: Standing Committee on Law and Justice.Google Scholar
Office of the Director of Public Prosecutions Western Australia (ODPP WA) (2011) Personal correspondence with the authors, unpublished.Google Scholar
Parekh, Bhikhu (2012) “Is There a Case for Banning Hate Speech?” in Herz, , , M., & Molnar, P., eds., The Content and Context of Hate Speech: Rethinking Regulation and Responses. New York: Cambridge Univ. Press. 37–56.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Post, Robert (2009) “Hate Speech,” in Hare, , , I., & Weinstein, J., eds., Extreme Speech and Democracy. New York: Oxford Univ. Press. 123–38.Google Scholar
Richardson, , , Graham (2014) “Auschwitz: Why I can't Back Brandis on Free Speech,” The Australian, 28 March. p. 12.Google Scholar
Savelsverg, Joachim, & King, Ryan D. (2005) “Institutionalizing Collective Memories of Hate: Law and Law Enforcement in Germany and the United States,” 111 American J. of Sociology 579–616.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Savelsverg, Joachim, & King, Ryan D. (2011) American Memories: Atrocities and the Law. New York, Russell Sage Foundation.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schauer, Frederick (1978) “Fear, Risk and the First Amendment: Unravelling the ‘Chilling Effect’,” 58 Boston Univ. Law Rev. 685–732.Google Scholar
Schlozman, Kay, Verba, Sidney, & Brady, Henry (2012) The Unheavenly Chorus: Unequal Political Voice and the Broken Promise of American Democracy. Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press.Google Scholar
Sproule, Warren (2006) “Content Analysis,” in Walter, , , M., ed., Social Research Methods: An Australian Perspective. Melbourne: Oxford Univ. Press. 113–34.Google Scholar
Suk, Julie (2012) “Denying Experience: Holocaust Denial and the Free-Speech Theory of the State,” in Herz, , , I., & Molnar, P., eds., The Content and Context of Hate Speech: Rethinking Regulation and Responses. New York: Cambridge Univ. Press. 144–63.Google Scholar
Sumner, L. W. (2009) “Incitement and the Regulation of Hate Speech in Canada: A Philosophical Analysis,” in Hare, , , I., & Weinstein, J., eds., Extreme Speech and Democracy. New York: Oxford Univ. Press. 204–20.Google Scholar
Thampapillai, , , Dilan (2010) “Inconsistent at Best? An Analysis of Australia's Federal Racial Vilification Laws,” 9 Canberra Law Rev. 1–22.Google Scholar
Thornton, Margaret (1990) The Liberal Promise: Anti Discrimination Legislation in Australia. Melbourne: Oxford Univ. Press.Google Scholar
Tichenor, Daniel, & Harris, Richard (2002-2003) “Organized Interests and American Political Development,” 117 Political Science Q. 587–612.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Trad, Keysar (2013) 12 March in Sydney, Australia. Interview conducted by authors, unpublished.Google Scholar
van Dijk, , , Teun (1997) “The Study of Discourse,” in van Dijk, , , T., ed., Discourse as Structure and Process. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. 1–34.Google Scholar
Veiszadeh, Mariam (2014) “When Faith Attracts the Wrong Attention,” Sydney Morning Herald, 11–12 October. p. 35.Google Scholar
Victorian Health Promotion Foundation (VHPF) (2012) Mental Health Impacts of Racial Discrimination in Victorian Aboriginal Communities: Experiences of Racism Survey—A Summary. Melbourne: VHPF.Google Scholar
Waldron, Jeremy (2012) The Harm in Hate Speech. Boston, MA: Harvard Univ. Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weinstein, James (1999) Hate Speech, Pornography, and the Radical Attack on Free Speech Doctrine. Colorado: Westview Press.Google Scholar
Williams, Patricia (1991) The Alchemy of Race and Rights. Cambridge: Harvard Univ. Press.Google Scholar
Williams, Sir David (2009) “Hate Speech in the United Kingdom: An Historical Overview,” in Hare, , , I., & Weinstein, J., eds., Extreme Speech and Democracy. New York: Oxford Univ. Press. 92–95.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Cases Cited

Burns v. Nine Network Australia Pty Ltd (2010) NSWADT 267 (10 November 2010)Google Scholar
Burns v. Radio 2UE Sydney Pty Ltd & Ors (2004) NSWADT 267 (22 November 2004)CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Butler v. Clemesha ( 2013) FCCA 722 (11 July 2013)Google Scholar
Campbell v. Kirstenfeldt (2008) FMCA 1356 (30 September 2008)CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carter v. Brown (2010) NSWADT 109 (6 May 2010)CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clarke v. Nationwide News Pty Ltd t/as Sunday Times (2012) FCA 307Google Scholar
Eatock v. Bolt & Herald and Weekly Times (2011) 283 ALR 505Google Scholar
Hagan v. Trustees of Toowoomba Sports Ground Trust (2001) 105 FCR 56Google Scholar
Hamlin v. Univ. Of Queensland (2013) FCCA 406 (31 May 2013)CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harou-Sourdon v. TCN Channel Nine Pty Ltd (1994) EOC ¶92-604Google Scholar
Hellenic Council of NSW v. Apoleski and Macedonian Youth Association (No. 1) (1997) NSWEOT (25 September 1997)Google Scholar
Islamic Council of Victoria v. Catch the Fire Ministries Inc. (2006) VSCA 284Google Scholar
JM and JN v. QL and QM (2010) NSWADT 66 (12 March 2010)Google Scholar
John Fairfax Publications Pty Ltd v. Kazak (EOD) (2002) NSW-ADTAP 35Google Scholar
Jones v. Trad (2013) NSWCA 389 (20 November 2013)CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jones v. Scully (2002) FCA 1080 (2 September 2002)Google Scholar
Jones v. Toben (2003) 129 FCR 515CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nicholls v. Brewarrina RSL Club Ltd (2013) NSWADT 29 (6 February 2013)Google Scholar
Noble v. Baldwin & Anor (2011) FMCA 283 (28 April 2011)CrossRefGoogle Scholar
O'Connell v. State of Western Australia (2012) WASCA 96Google Scholar
Patten v. NSW (1995) NSWEOT (21 Jan 1997)Google Scholar
San v. Dirluck Pty Ltd & Anor (2005) FMCA 750 (9 June 2005)Google Scholar
Sidhu v. Raptis (2012) FMCA 338 (9 May 2012)Google Scholar
Singh v. Shafston Training One Pty Ltd & Anor (2013) QCAT 8 (8 January 2013)Google Scholar
Trad v. Jones (No. 3) (2013) NSWADTAP 13 (18 March 2013)CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Trad v. Jones (No. 5) (2013) NSWADT 127 (5 June 2013)CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Trad v. Jones (No. 7) (2014) NSWCATAD 225 (19 December 2014)CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Trad v. Jones & Anor (No. 3) (2009) NSWADT 318 (21 December 2009)Google Scholar
Wagga Wagga Aboriginal Action Group v. Eldridge (1995) EOC ¶92-701Google Scholar
Western Aboriginal Legal Service v. Jones and Radio 2UE (2000) NSWADT 102 (31 July 2000)Google Scholar

Statutes Cited

Anti-Discrimination Act 1977 (NSW)Google Scholar
Anti-Discrimination Act 1991 (Qld)Google Scholar
Anti-Discrimination Act 1998 (Tas)Google Scholar
Civil Liability Act 1936 (SA)Google Scholar
Criminal Code 1913 (WA)Google Scholar
Discrimination Act 1991 (ACT)Google Scholar
Racial and Religious Tolerance Act 2001 (Vic)Google Scholar
Racial Discrimination Act 1975 (Cth)Google Scholar
Racial Hatred Act 1995 (Cth)Google Scholar
Racial Vilification Act 1996 (SA)Google Scholar