Hostname: page-component-84b7d79bbc-l82ql Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-07-31T03:18:28.277Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Losers: Recovering Lost Property in Japan and the United States

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  01 January 2024

Abstract

This article examines the lost property regime of Japan, which has one of the most impressive reputations in the world for returning lost property to its rightful owner, and compares it with that of the United States. Folk legend attributes Japanese lost-and-found success to honesty and other-regarding preferences. In this article, I focus on another possible explanation: legal institutions that efficiently and predictably allocate and enforce possessory rights. These recognized, centuries-old rules mesh with norms, institutional structures, and economic incentives to reinforce mutually the message that each sends and yields more lost-property recovery than altruism alone.

Type
Of General Interest
Copyright
© 2003 Law and Society Association.

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

References

Ames, Walter L. (1981) Police and Community in Japan. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Aoki, Masahiko (2001) “Community Norms and Embeddedness: A Game-Theoretic Approach,” in Aoki, M. & Hayami, Y., eds., Communities and Markets in Economic Development. New York: Oxford Univ. Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Asahi Shinbun, (1998) Survey, April 1. Available at Roper Center for Public Opinion Research, University of Connecticut. http://www.ropercenter.uconn.edu/jpoll/home.html.Google Scholar
Asahi Shinbun, (2001) Japan Almanac 2002. Tokyo: Asahi Shinbun.Google Scholar
Barr, Sheldon P., & Katz, Melvin (1959) “Personal Property—Lost and Found Property,” 25 Brooklyn Law Rev. 311–15.Google Scholar
Basu, Kaushik, & Weibull, Jörgen W. (2002) “Punctuality—A Cultural Trait as Equilibrium,” Research of Industrial Economics Working Paper No. 582, June. http://swopec.hhs.se/iuiwop/abs/iuiwop0582.htm.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bayley, David H. (1991) Forces of Order: Policing Modern Japan. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.Google Scholar
Blair, Margaret M., & Stout, Lynn A. (2001) “Trust, Trustworthiness, and the Behavioral Foundations of Corporate Law,” 149 Univ. of Pennsylvania Law Rev. 1735–810.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brucker, Daniel (2000) Telephone interview with author, December 12.Google Scholar
Comment (1939) “Lost, Mislaid, and Abandoned Property,” 8 Fordham Law Rev. 222–52.Google Scholar
Dagan, Hanoch (1999) “In Defense of the Good Samaritan,” 97 Michigan Law Rev. 1152–200.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Donner, Arvin N. (1940) “A Survey of Students' Concepts Concerning Lost and Found Property,” 34 J. Educational Research 288–99.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dufwenberg, Martin, & Gneezy, Uri (2000) “Measuring Beliefs in an Experimental Lost Wallet Game,” 30 Games and Economic Behavior 163–82.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eki Shanai no Wasuremono Soku Kensaku” [“Unified Search for Objects Lost in Stations and on Trains” ] (2002) Nihon Keizai Shinbun, 10 July (evening edition), 18.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Frey, Bruno S., & Jegen, Reto (2000) “Motivation Crowding Theory: A Survey of Empirical Evidence,” University of Zurich Working Paper No. 26, January. http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=203330.Google Scholar
Goldstein, Richard S., Minkin, Bonnie L., Minkin, Neil, & Baer, Donaled M. (1978) “Finders, Keepers? An Analysis and Validation of a Free-Found-Ad Policy,” 11 J. of Applied Behavior Analysis 465–73.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gonzalez, Daniel (2002) City of New York Police Department Legal Bureau. Personal correspondence, May 15.Google Scholar
Goodrum, Susan (2000) Telephone interview with author, December 21.Google Scholar
Gotō, Hiroko (1997) Shonen Hanzai to Shonenhō [Juvenile Crime and the Juvenile Justice Law]. Tokyo: Akashi Shoten.Google Scholar
Granovetter, Mark (1985) “Economic Action and Social Structure: The Problem of Embeddedness,” 91 American J. of Sociology 480510.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
“Gyōretsu no Dekiru Hōritsu Sōdansho” [“Legal Advice Office: So Good You Have to Stand in Line” ]” (2002) Yomiuri TV, first aired May 26.Google Scholar
Haley, John Owen (1991) Authority Without Power: Law and the Japanese Paradox. New York: Oxford Univ. Press.Google Scholar
Hamilton, V. Lee, & Sanders, Joseph (1992) Everyday Justice: Responsibility and the Individual in Japan and the United States. New Haven, CT: Yale Univ. Press.Google Scholar
Hanrei Taikei, & Iinkai, Henshū, eds. (2001) Hanrei Taikei CD-Rom database, Daiichi Hōki Shuppan Kabushiki Kaisha, TKC LEX/DB.Google Scholar
Hayashi, Chikio, & Kuroda, Yasumasa (1997) Japanese Culture in Comparative Perspective. Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers.Google Scholar
Heine, Steven J., & Renshaw, Kristen (2002) “Interjudge Agreement, Self-Enhancement, and Liking: Cross-Cultural Divergences,” 28 Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin 442–51.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Heine, Steven J., Takata, Toshitake, & Lehman, Darrin R. (2000) “Beyond Self-Presentation: Evidence for Self-Criticism Among Japanese,” 26 Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin 7178.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Helmholz, R. H. (1983) “Equitable Division and the Law of Finders,” 52 Fordham Law Rev. 313–26.Google Scholar
Helmholz, R. H. (1987) “Wrongful Possession of Chattels: Hornbook Law and Case Law,” 80 Northwestern Univ. Law Rev. 1221–43.Google Scholar
Hōmushō, (19741999) Kensatsu Tōkei Nenpo [Annual Report of Prosecutorial Statistics], various years. Tokyo: Ōkurashō.Google Scholar
Horioka, Charles Yuji, Fujisaki, Hideki, Wanatabe, Wako, & Kouno, Takatsugu (2000) “Are Americans More Altruistic than the Japanese? A U.S.-Japan Comparison of Saving and Bequest Motives,” NBER Working Paper 7463. http://econpapers.hhs.se/paper/fthosakae/487.htm.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hoshino, Tohoru (1943) Meiji Minpō Hensanshi Kenkyū [A Study of Changes in the Meiji Civil Code]. Tokyo: Daiyamondosha.Google Scholar
Ishii, Ryōsuke (1992) Keibatsu no Rekishi [A History of Punishment]. Tokyo: Akashi Shoten.Google Scholar
Ishitsubutsuhō Kenkyūkai [Lost Property Law Study Group], ed. (1899) Jitsumu Ishitsubutsu [Lost Property Law Practice]. Tokyo: Tachibana Shobō.Google Scholar
Johnson, David T. (2002) The Japanese Way of Justice: Prosecuting Crime in Japan. New York: Oxford Univ. Press.Google Scholar
Kawakami, Kiyobumi, & Takai-Kawakami, Kiyoka (1995) “Kodomo no Kyogi Kyōdō” [“Deception in Children” ], 36 Jidō Aonen Seishin Igaku to Sono Kinsetsu Ryōiki, [J. of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry] 223–31.Google Scholar
Kawashima, Takeyoshi (1967) Nihonjin no Hōishiki [Japanese Legal Consciousness]. Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten.Google Scholar
Keisatsuchō [National Police Agency] (1999, 2000) Keisatsu Hakusho [White Paper on Police]. Tokyo: Ōkurashō.Google Scholar
Kikuchi, Kazuhiko (1998) “Ishitsubutsuhō 4jō ni Yoru Ishistsu Tegata no Kachi to Hōrōkin no Kettei” [“Value of the Object Under Article 4 of the Lost Property Law and the Setting of Finders' Fees” ], 1073 Jurisuto 335–37.Google Scholar
Kitayama, Shinobu, Marcus, Hazel Rose, Matsumoto, Hisaya, & Norasakkunkit, Vinai (1997) “Individual and Collective Processes in the Construction of the Self: Self-Enhancement in the United States and Self-Criticism in Japan,” 72 J. Personality & Social Psychology 1245–67.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kiyoura, Keigo (1899) Meiji Hōseisi [Meiji Legal History]. Tokyo: Meihōdō.Google Scholar
LaFave, Wayne R., & Scott, Austin W. (1986) Criminal Law 2d. ed. St. Paul, MN: West Group.Google Scholar
Landes, William M., & Posner, Richard A. (1978) “Salvors, Finders, Good Samaritans, and Other Rescuers: An Economic Study of Law and Altruism,” 7 J. Legal Studies 83128.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lebra, Takie Sugiyama (1976) Japanese Patterns of Behavior. Honolulu: Univ. Press of Hawaii.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Levmore, Saul (1986) “Waiting for Rescue: An Essay on the Evolution and Incentive Structure of the Law of Affirmative Obligations,” 72 Virginia Law Rev. 879941.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lewis, Catherine C. (1995) Educating Hearts and Minds: Reflections on Japanese Preschool and Elementary Education. New York: Cambridge Univ. Press.Google Scholar
Lombardi, Kate Stone (1996) “Electronics Store? No, Lost and Found in Grand Central Terminal,” New York Times 28 July, 13WC1.Google Scholar
Magnier, Mark (1999) “Many Happy Returns for Lost and Found,” Los Angeles Times, 29 Nov., A1.Google Scholar
Mann, Ronald (2002) “Credit Cards and Debit Cards in the United States and Japan,” 55 Vanderbilt Law Rev. 1055–108.Google Scholar
Matsui, Hiroshi, Nakasato, Yoshimasa, & Ishii, Takayuki (1998) “Aitasei no Kōzō ni Kansuru Kokusai Hikaku Kenkyū” [“Comparative Analysis of the Structure of Altruistic Behavior” ], 13 Shakai Shinrigaku Kenkyū [Studies in Social Psychology] 133–42.Google Scholar
Matsumura, Makia (2002) “Lost & Found,” asahi.com MYTOWN. http://mytown.asahi.com/usa/news02.asp?c=22&kiji=2.Google Scholar
McAdams, Richard H. (1997) “The Origin, Development, and Regulation of Norms,” 96 Michigan Law Rev. 338443.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McCarthy, Michael J. (2002) “Mysteries Abound for the Nancy Drew of Unclaimed Stuff,” Wall Street Journal, 25 Oct., A1, A7.Google Scholar
Milgram, Stanley (1977) The Individual in a Social World: Essays and Experiments. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.Google Scholar
Milgram, Stanley, Mann, Leon, & Harter, Susan (1965) “The Lost-Letter Technique: A Tool of Social Research,” 29 Public Opinion Q. 437–38.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Miller, Alan S., & Kanazawa, Satoshi (2000) Order by Accident: The Origins and Consequences of Conformity in Contemporary Japan. Boulder: Westview Press.Google Scholar
Moorman, Jennifer S. (1997) “Finders Weepers, Losers Weepers? Benjamin v. Lindner Aviation, Inc.,” 82 Iowa Law Rev. 717–37.Google Scholar
Mukai, Ken, & Toshitani, Nobuyoshi (1967) “The Progress and Problems of Compiling the Civil Code in the Early Meiji Era,” 1 Law in Japan: An Annual 2559, Translated by Dan Fenno Henderson.Google Scholar
Muryō Kashikasa” [Free Umbrellas for Borrowing] (2002) asahi.com MYTOWN. http://mytown.asahi.com/Osaka/news01.asp?kiji=293.Google Scholar
“Okigaru ni 110ban Kyūzō” [“Drastic Increase in Non-Emergency Calls to 911” ] (2001) Nihon Keizai Shinbun, 2 Nov. (evening edition),19.Google Scholar
Orth, John V. (2001) “What's Wrong with the Law of Finders and How to Fix It,” 4 Green Bag 2d 391–99.Google Scholar
Otsuka, Masatami (1993) “Hanrei ni Miru Nichibei Bunka Hikaku No. 7: Otoshimono wo Hirotta Hito no Kenri no Nichibei Hikaku” [“A Comparison of Japanese and U.S. Culture Through Court Decisions No. 7: Legal Rights of Lost Property Finders” ], 2–4 Kokusai Hōmu Senryaku 8285.Google Scholar
Penner, Louis A., Summers, Lynn S., Brookmire, David A., & Dertke, Max C. (1976) “The Lost Dollar: Situational and Personality Determinants of a Pro- and Antisocial Behavior,” 44 J. of Personality 274–93.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Posner, Richard A. (2000) “Savigny, Holmes, and the Law and Economics of Possession,” 86 Virginia Law Rev. 535–67.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Quint, Emanuel (1997) A Restatement of Rabbinic Civil Law. Northvale, NJ: J. Aronson.Google Scholar
Riesman, David Jr. (1939) “Possession and The Law of Finders,” 52 Harvard Law Rev. 1105–34.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rose, Carol M. (1985) “Possession as the Origin of Property,” 52 Univ. of Chicago Law Rev. 7388.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Roth, Alvin E., Prasnikar, Vesna, Okuno-Fujiwara, Masahiro, & Zamir, Shmuel (1991) “Bargaining and Market Behavior in Jerusalem, Ljubljana, Pittsburgh, and Tokyo: An Experimental Study,” 81 American Economic Rev. 1068–95.Google Scholar
Saikō Saibansho, Jimusōkyoku, (19912000) Shihō Tōkei Nenpo [Annual Report of Judicial Statistics]. Tokyo: Ōkurashō.Google Scholar
Sally, David (2002) “Two Economic Applications of Sympathy,” 18 J. Law, Economics, & Organization 455–87.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Satakura, Hiroshi (1964) “Sen'yū Ridatsubutsu Ōryōzai” [“Embezzlement of Uncontrolled Objects” ], in Dandō, S., ed., Chūshaku Keihō [Annotated Penal Code]. Tokyo: Yūhikaku.Google Scholar
Shima, Toshirō (1986) “Ishitsubutsuhō 4jō ni iu ‘Bukken no Kakaku' to Hōrōkin no Kettei” [“Value of the Object' and Finder's Fees under Article 4 of the Lost Property Law” ], 863 Jurisuto 9899.Google Scholar
Shōda, Manzaburō (1959) “Shisha no Sen'yū ni Tsuite” [“Regarding Death and Control” ], 320 Jurisuto 6970.Google Scholar
Shohisha Ishiki, Chōsa (2000) “Bijinesuman no Otoshimono Hakusho” [“White Paper on Businessmen's Lost Property” ], http://www.cic.co.jp/introduce/20000411_1.html.Google Scholar
Tōkeikyoku, Sōmucho (2000) Shakai Seikatsu Tōkei Shihyō [Social Indicators by Prefecture of Japan]. Tokyo: Nihon Tōkei Kyōkai.Google Scholar
Sōrifu [Prime Minister's Office] (1997) “Kōban/Chuzaisho ni Kansuru Seron Chōsa” [“Survey Regarding Kōban” ], http://www.sorifu.go.jp/survey/;koban.html.Google Scholar
Staunton, Sir George (1810) Ta Tsing Leu Lee, Being the Fundamental Laws of the Penal Code of China. London: T. Cadell.Google Scholar
Stern, Steven E., & Farber, Jon E. (1997) “The Lost E-Mail Method: Milgram's Lost-Letter Technique in the Age of the Internet,” 29 Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers 260–63.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stout, Lynn A. (2001) “Other-Regarding Preferences and Social Norms,” Social Science Research Network, Working paper. http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=265902.Google Scholar
Suzuki, Shingo, & Kobayashi, Jūichi (1998) “Keisatsu no ‘Komarigoto Sōdan' ni Kansuru Bunseki” [“Analysis of Police Consultations” ], 39 Kagaku Keisastu Kenkyūjo Hōkoku 6681.Google Scholar
Suzuki, Shingo, Shishido, Chōichi, & Kobayashi, Jūichi (1992) “Jūmin no Chiiki Mitchakudo to Kōban ni Tsuite no Ninchi/Hyōka to no Kanren” [“Relation of Kōban” Knowledge and Appraisal to Citizen's Regionalism” ], 33 Kagaku Keisatsu Kenkyūjo Hōkoku 8594.Google Scholar
Takahashi, Sadahiko (1987) “Settō to Ishitsubutsu (Sen'yū Ridatsubutsu) Ōryō to no Genkai” [“The Line Between Theft and Lost-Property Embezzlement” ], Keihō no Sō ten [Points at Issue in Criminal Law], Jurisuto Zōkan 252.Google Scholar
Tamiya, Hiroshi, & Hirose, Kenji (1998) Chūshaku Shonenhō, [Annotated Juvenile Justice Law]. Tokyo: Yuhikaku.Google Scholar
Tezuka, Yutaka (1944) Meiji Shonen no Mimpō Hensan [Changes to the Meiji Civil Code]. Tokyo: Shihōsho.Google Scholar
Tezuka, Yutaka (1984) Meiji Keihōshi no Kenkyū [A Study of Meiji Penal Code History]. Tokyo: Keio Tsūshin.Google Scholar
Topolnicki, Denise M. (1994) “You'd Be Surprised What Folks Will Do for Money Today,” Money 12 (Aug.).Google Scholar
Wagamatsu, Sakae (1983) Bukkenhō [Property Law], rev. ed. Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten.Google Scholar
West, Mark D. (1992) “Prosecution Review Commissions: Japan's Answer to the Problem of Prosecutorial Discretion,” 92 Columbia Law Rev. 684723.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wilson, James Q., & Kelling, George L. (1982) “Broken Windows,” Atlantic Monthly 29–38 (March).Google Scholar
Yamagishi, Toshio (1998) Shinrai no Kōzō [The Anatomy of Trust]. Tokyo: Tokyo Daigaku Shuppankai.Google Scholar

Cases Cited

Armory v. Delamirie, 1 Str. 505, 92 Eng. Rep. 664 (K.B. 1722).Google Scholar
Benjamin v. Lindner Aviation, Inc., 534 N.W.2d 400 (Iowa 1995).Google Scholar
Flood v. City Nat. Bank of Clinton, 20 Iowa 935, cert. denied, 56 S.Ct. 749 (1935).Google Scholar
Ghen v. Rich, 8 F. 159 (Mass D.C. 1881).Google Scholar
Kō no v. Tokyo Renga, Tokyo District Court, 1420 Hanrei Jihō 103 (Mar. 5, 1991).Google Scholar
Nagaoka v. Okuyama, Great Court of Cassation, 27 Minroku 2199 (Dec. 26, 1922).Google Scholar
Niederlehner v. Weatherly, 73 Ohio App. 33, aff'd 142 Ohio St. 366 (1943).Google Scholar
People v. Colon, 318 NYS 2d 929 (NY 1970).Google Scholar
Rheinhauer v. DeKrieges, 67 N.Y.S.2d 211 (N.Y. City Ct. 1946).Google Scholar
Saritejdiam, Inc. v. Excess Ins. Co., 971 F.2d 910 (2d Cir. 1992).Google Scholar
Satō v. Shimizu K.K., Nagoya District Court, 404 Hanrei Jihō 47 (Mar. 4, 1965)Google Scholar
State v. [no party name given], Great Court of Cassation, 2630 Hōritsu Shinbun 6 (Nov. 2, 1927).Google Scholar
State v. [no party name given], Niigata District Court, 560 Hanrei Times 199 (Jul. 2, 1985).Google Scholar
State v. [no party name given], Tokyo High Court, 761 Kōken Sokuhō (Nov. 5, 1958).Google Scholar
State v. Boku, Supreme Court, 4 Keishū 190 (June 27, 1950).Google Scholar
State v. Gochi, Great Court of Cassation, 23 Keiroku 1113 (Aug. 15, 1917).Google Scholar
State v. Hosoda, Supreme Court, 147 Jurisuto 86 (Nov. 8, 1957).Google Scholar
State v. Katō, Great Court of Cassation, 27 Keiroku 545 (June 18, 1921).Google Scholar
State v. Kawaguchi, Supreme Court, 447 Hanrei Jihō 97 (Apr. 8, 1956).Google Scholar
State v. Masuda, Tokyo High Court, 281 Hanji 31 (Aug. 8, 1961).Google Scholar
State v. Matsuo, Morioka District Court, 582 Hanrei Jihō 110 (Apr. 16, 1979).Google Scholar
State v. Ono, Supreme Court, 999 Hanrei Jihō 127 (Feb. 20, 1981).Google Scholar
State v. Sekiguchi, Supreme Court, 2 Keishū 1877 (Dec. 24, 1948).Google Scholar
State v. Yamamoto, Fukuoka District Court, 8 Kokei 418 (Apr. 25, 1955).Google Scholar
Sugisaki v. Hayakawa Building Brokers Bank, Tokyo D. Ct., 2386 Hōritsu Shinbun 14 (Feb. 2, 1928).Google Scholar
Willsmore v. Township of Osceola, 106 Mich. App. 671, 308 N.W. 2d 796 (1981).Google Scholar
Yoneda v. Tōkai Bank, Tokyo District Court, 1043 Hanrei Jihō 140 (Mar. 15, 1982).Google Scholar

Statutes Cited

Cal. Code tit. 10, ch. 7 (Unclaimed Property Law), §§ 1513 (2003).Google Scholar
Civil Code [Minpō], Law No. 89 of 1896, Law No. 9 of 1898, art. 240.Google Scholar
Harigamirui, , reprinted in Jingōshichō, , ed. (1928) 2 Koji Ruien [Encyclopedia of Ancient Matters], Hōritsu 44, Ran'ibutsu 799 (1896–1914). Kyoto: Koji Ruien Hakkōkai.Google Scholar
Iowa Code Ann. §§ 644.1, 644.4, 644.7, 644.13 (2003).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ishitsubutsu Toriatsukai Kisoku, Kokka Kōan Iinkai Kisoku 4 (Mar. 2, 1989).Google Scholar
Ishitsubutsuhō [Law Concerning Lost Articles], Law no. 40 (1899).Google Scholar
Ishitsubutsuhō Shikō Kisoku, Sōrijurei 52 (June 10, 1958).Google Scholar
Ishitsubutsuhō Shikōrei, Seirei 172 (June 10, 1958).Google Scholar
Keihō [Criminal Code], Law No. 45 (1907).Google Scholar
Kaitei Ritsurei [Amended Statutes], Horei Bango Dai 206 [Law No. 206], in Naikaku Hōkyoku, at 289 (1873).Google Scholar
Kokka Baishōhō [State Redress Law], Law No. 125 (1947).Google Scholar
Osadamegaki, Kujikata, reprinted in Okuno, Hiroroku (1968) Teihon Osadamegaki no Kenkyū, 728 (1742). Tokyo: Sakai Shoten.Google Scholar
Kyūkeihō art. 385, in Naikakukan Hōkyoku 155 (1880).Google Scholar
Model Penal Code 223.5 (1962).Google Scholar
Mont. Code Ann. §§ 70-5-203 to -206 (2003).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Naikaku Hōkyoku, Hōrei Zensho (1876). Tokyo: Ōkurashō.Google Scholar
N.Y. Personal Property Law §§ 252–254 (2003).Google Scholar
Or. Rev. Stat § 98.025 (2003).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shinritsu Kōryō, Hōrei Bango Dai 944, in Naikaku Hōkyoku, Hōrei Zensho 661 (1871).Google Scholar
Shonenhō [Juvenile Law], Law No. 84 (1992).Google Scholar
Tokugawa Kinrei Kō Goshū 26, Statutory compilation, Kikuchi Shunsuke. ed. Tokyo: Shikoso (1931).Google Scholar
Wis. Stat. Ann § 170.09 (2003).Google Scholar