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The Metropolitan Connection: Foreign and Semiforeign Elites in Haiti, 1900–1915

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  24 October 2022

Brenda Gayle Plummer
Brenda Gayle Plummer*
Affiliation:
University of Minneapolis, Twin Cities
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While Haiti's economic dependency and poverty are shared by other Caribbean nations, its history of underdevelopment serves as a prototype for them. Haiti's political independence, achieved in 1804, set the stage for an increasingly difficult struggle to survive among imperialist states. Haiti prefigured the modern Latin American experience and thus provides a classic example of how national aspirations in the hemisphere were derailed. Equally significant, it illustrates the manner in which commerce, rather than plantation enterprise or extensive capital investment, could foster socioeconomic decline.

Type
Research Reports and Notes
Information
Latin American Research Review , Volume 19 , Issue 2 , 1984 , pp. 119 - 142
Copyright
Copyright © 1984 by Latin American Research Review

Footnotes

*

The author wishes to acknowledge the support of the University of Minnesota Graduate School and the College of Liberal Arts.

References

Notes

1. The Haitian bourgeoisie's commercial role is increasingly recognized in more recent scholarship, notably, Gil Martinez, “De l'ambigúité de nationalisme bourgeois en Haïti,” Nouvelle Optique 9 (Jan.–Mar. 1973): 1–32; and Robert K. Lacerte, “Xenophobia and Economic Decline: The Haitian Case, 1820–1843,” The Americas 37 (Apr. 1981): 499–515.

2. For the political and social roles of these groups, see Jean Price-Mars, La Vocation de l'élite (Port-au-Prince: Imp. Edmond Chenet, 1919); Maurice de Young, “Class Parameters in Haitian Society,” Journal of Inter-American Studies 1 (Oct. 1959): 449–58; David Nicholls, “Idéologies et mouvements politiques en Haiti, 1915–1946,” Annales, Economies, Sociétés, Civilisations 30 (1975): 654–79; David Nicholls, From Dessalines to Duvalier: Race, Colour, and National Independence in Haiti (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979).

3. Celso Furtado, Economic Development of Latin America (London: Cambridge University Press, 1976), pp. 14, 33, 43, 94–95; André Gunder Frank, Capitalism and Underdevelopment in Latin America (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1969), pp. 8–12, 281–96; Stanley J. Stein and Barbara H. Stein, The Colonial Heritage of Latin America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1970), pp. 124–55.

4. Susanne Bodenheimer, “Dependency and Imperialism: The Roots of Latin American Underdevelopment,” Politics and Society 1 (May 1971): 333; Frank, Capitalism, pp. xi, xii, 3; James D. Cockcroft, André Gunder Frank, and Dale L. Johnson, Dependency and Underdevelopment (New York: Anchor Books, Doubleday, 1972), pp. xvi–xviii.

5. Cockcroft et al., Dependency, pp. xvi-xviii; Furtado, Economic Development, pp. 72–74; Frank, Capitalism, p. xii. Specific criticism of Haitian upper-class behavior is found in Price-Mars, La Vocation, pp. 4, 19–22; Sténio Vincent, En posant les jalons, vol. 1 (Port-au-Prince: Imp. de l'Etat, 1939), pp. 346–51; Edward Beach, “Caperton in Haiti,” p. 26, MSS in Naval Records Collection Record Group (RG) 45, National Archives (hereafter NA); Nicholls, “Idéologies,” pp. 656–57.

6. De Young, “Class Parameters,” pp. 449, 451, 452–54; Martinez, “De l'ambigúite,” p. 31; Patrick Bellegarde-Smith, “Haitian Social Thought in the Nineteenth Century: Class Formation and Westernization,” Caribbean Studies 20 (Mar. 1980): 17.

7. New York Times, 6 May 1900, p. 23, col. 1.

8. Powell to Hay, 10 June 1903, Consular Dispatches from Haiti (hereafter CD), RG 59, NA; République d'Haiti, Statistique générale de la République d'Haiti (Port-au-Prince: Imp. de l'Abeille, 1908), pp. 54, 57.

9. Fernand Hibbert, Scènes de la vie haïtienne: Séna (Port-au-Prince: Imp. de l'Abeille, 1905), pp. 98, 99. Of Hibbert, Sténio Vincent wrote: “Mr. Fernand Hibbert's novels have an unquestionable documentary value. … Mr. Hibbert is an important witness and his testimony cannot be ignored. By the quality and choice of their quite trenchant observations, Hibbert's novels reveal to us the total spirit of the social sphere, yield up to us the souls of citizens who are cogs in the political machine. The types presented are not fictional characters. They are living. We meet them in the street.” En posant les jalons, vol. 1, p. 206.

10. Charles Cowan to the State Department, 19 July 1915, State Department Decimal File (hereafter DF), No 838.00/1208; dispatches of Minister Furniss to the Secretary of State, 15 September 1910, 838.602501/7; 27 October 1910, 838.304/1; 4 April 1911, 838.602; 25 July 1911, 838.34/29.

11. Powell to Hay, 23 July, CD; Le Moniteur, 2 March 1910; Furniss's dispatches to the Secretary of State, 27 October 1910, DF, 838.304/1; 6 August 1910, 838.602; 13 May 1913, 838.77/76; R. D. Longyear, “Railroad Mileage and Operation in Haiti,” 22 July 1925, 838.77/336. For a general discussion of this problem, see Frank, Capitalism, pp. xii-xiv; Furtado, Economic Development, pp. 303–4; Cockcroft et al., Dependency, pp. 365–75.

12. Pierre Benoit, Cent cinquante ans de commerce extérieur d'Haiti (Port-au-Prince: Institut haítien de statistique, 1954), p. 12; Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, Commercial Relations of the United States, 1900–1915, Haiti.

13. Benoit, Cent cinquante ans, p. 12; Commercial Relations, 1907, p. 202; Alexander Murray's Annual Report, 1909, Great Britain Foreign Office (hereafter FO), British Foreign and State Papers, Hayti and San Domingo, FO 371/914; testimony of Roger L. Farnham, United States Senate Inquiry into the Occupation and Administration of Haiti and Santo Domingo, Hearings before a Select Committee on Haiti and Santo Domingo, 2 vols., 67th Congress, 1st and 2nd sess., 1922 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1922), p. 110.

14. Extrapolated from Commercial Relations, 1900–15, and U.S. Bureau of Foreign Commerce, Foreign Commerce and Navigation, 1900–15.

15. Powell to Hay, 15 February 1905, CD; Harry Johnston, The Negro in the New World (New York: Methuen and Company, 1910), p. 204.

16. L. C. Ford and Thomas Ford, The Foreign Trade of the United States: Its Character, Organization and Methods (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1920), pp. 86, 87, 91, 92. On American marketing and management in the early twentieth century, see Robert Wiebe, The Search for Order, 1877-1920 (New York: Hill and Wang, 1967), pp. 19–22.

17. E. P. Lyle, “What Should Haiti's Future Be?” World's Work 11 (Feb. 1906): 7151–62; Francis Mairs Huntington Wilson, Memoirs of an Ex-Diplomat (Boston: Bruce Humphries, 1945), pp. 195, 196, 252; Hans Schmidt, The United States Occupation of Haiti, 1915-1934 (East Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1971), p. 36.

18. Powell to Hay, 26 May 1900, CD; Leslie F. Manigat, “La substitution de la préponderance américaine à la préponderance française en Haiti au début du XXe siècle: la conjuncture de 1910–1911,” Revue d'histoire moderne et contemporaine 14 (Oct.–Dec. 1967): 335–36.

19. Manigat, “Substitution,” pp. 335–36; Powell to Hay, 26 May 1900, CD; Stephen Bonsai, The American Mediterranean (New York: Moffat, Yard, and Company, 1913), pp. 396–98.

20. Manigat, “Substitution,” pp. 335–36.

21. Franco-Haitian commercial treaty, in Battiste to the State Department, 20 August 1900, CD; Chapin's monograph on Haiti, pt. 4, ch. 3, pp. 6–7, MSS at the United States Embassy, Port-au-Prince; L. Abrams and D. J. Miller, “Who Were the French Colonialists? A Reassessment of the Parti Colonial, 1890–1914,” The Historical Journal 19 (1976): 685–725.

22. Commercial Relations, 1901, p. 567; Vansittart to Lansdowne, 16 March 1905, and Shue to Lansdowne, 16 June 1902, in Great Britain, Foreign Office, British Foreign and State Papers, General Correspondence, Hayti, FO 35/182, and FO 35/178 respectively.

23. R. D. Longyear, “Haitian Coffee: Its Cultivation and Preparation for Shipment,” 9 September 1922, DF, 838.61333/47; Powell to Hay, 10 June 1901; Battiste to the State Department, 23 August 1900, CD.

24. Powell to Hay, 10 June 1901, and 29 July 1901, CD. Furniss to the Secretary of State, 23 February 1910, DF, 874/68; Alain Turnier, Les Etats-Unis et le marché haïtien (Washington, D.C.: n. p., 1955), pp. 287–88; Joseph Chatelain, La Banque nationale, son histoire, ses problèmes (Port-au-Prince: Collection du Trincinquantenaire d'Haiti, 1954), p. 71.

25. Martinez, “De l'ambigúité de nationalisme bourgeois”; see Lacerte, “Xenophobia,” for historical perspectives on the Haitian merchant class in the nineteenth century.

26. Lacerte, “Xenophobia,” p. 511; Eugène Aubin [Léon E. A. C. Descos], En Haiti (Paris: Librairie Armand Colin, 1910), p. xxi.

27. Lacerte, “Xenophobia,” p. 509. Early twentieth-century examples of such laws appear in Le Moniteur, 25 August 1900; Hannibal Price, Dictionnaire de législation administrative haïtienne (Port-au-Prince: Imp. Chéraquit, 1923), pp. 505–6.

28. Furtado, Economic Development, p. 43; Paul Moral, Le Paysan haïtien (Paris: G.-P. Maisonneuve et Larose, 1961), pp. 270–71; Alexandre Battiste to John Hay, 10 November 1903, CD.

29. Frédéric Marcelin, Au Gré du Souvenir (Paris: Augustin Challamel, 1913), pp. 20–21.

30. David Nicholls, Economic Dependence and Political Autonomy, the Haitian Experience (Montreal: McGill University Centre for Developing-Area Studies, 1974), pp. 18–25. On diminishing Haitian entrepreneurial capability, see Dana G. Munro, Intervention and Dollar Diplomacy in the Caribbean, 1900-1921 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1964), pp. 246–47; Manigat, “Substitution,” pp. 326–27, 329; Marcelin, Au Gré du Souvenir, pp. 20, 21, 107–8.

31. Léonce Bernard, Antoine Sansaricq, l'homme, sa vie, ses idées (Port-au-Prince: Imp. A. P. Barthelmy, n. d.), p. 8; Joseph Jérémie, Mémoires, vol. 1 (Port-au-Prince: Imp. de l'Etat, 1950), pp. 95–96; J. Geffrard, “Ce que j'ai entendu et vecu,” n. d., MSS in the Louis McCarty Little Papers, United States Marine Corps Museum, Washington, D.C.

32. Livre bleu d'Haïti/Blue Book of Haiti (New York: Klebold Press, 1920), pp. 75, 201.

33. On 1883, Louis Janvier, Les Affaires d'Haïti (1883-1884) (Paris: C. Marpon et Flammarion, 1885), especially pp. 57–60, 128; Marcelin, Au Gré du Souvenir, p. 107; David Nicholls, “The Wisdom of Salomon: Myth or Reality?” Journal of Inter-American Studies and World Affairs 20 (Nov. 1978): 377–92; Powell to Hay, 15 August 1902, CD.

34. Descos, En Haiti, pp. xxi-xxii, 337–38, n. 1; Marc Pean, L'Illusion héroique, 25 ans de vie capoise, 1890-1915, vol. 1 (Port-au-Prince: Henri Deschamps, 1976), pp. 73–74.

35. Descos, En Haiti, p. xxii, also xxii, n. 1.

36. Madison Smith to the Secretary of State, 2 February 1914, DF, 838.00/829; Schmidt, The U.S. Occupation, p. 35.

37. Figures on the number of Syrians in Haiti range from fifteen thousand (Powell to Hay, 10 June 1903, CD) to a few hundred (Carl Kelsey's testimony, Senate, Inquiry, pp. 1282–83). The widely varying estimates reflect the political sensitivity of the question at the time. Enclosure no. 4 in Smith to the Secretary of State, 2 February 1914, DF, 838.00/829. On Syrio-Lebanese immigration to the Americas in general, see Philip M. Kayal and Joseph M. Kayal, The Syrian-Lebanese in America (Boston: Twayne Publishers, 1975), pp. 23–59. On the size of the French community, Douglass to Blaine, 15 February 1890, CD; Louis Audain père, Du changement de nationalité parmi les Haïtiens (Port-au-Prince: Mme. F. Smith, 1903), p. 14; Consul's Annual Report, 1906, FO 371/266; Terres to Furniss, 17 December 1908, Post Records. Letters from Consuls to Ministers, RG 84, NA; Descos, pp. xxi–xxii, 263–72.

38. Powell to Hay, 15 February 1905, CD; Johnston, The Negro, pp. 165–66.

39. Powell to Hay, 15 February 1905, CD; Johnston, The Negro, p. 204; Capt. Fred E. McMillen, S.C., “Some Haitian Recollections,” United States Naval Institute, Annapolis, Proceedings 62 (Apr. 1936): 526; Moral, Le Paysan haitien, p. 270.

40. Furniss to Root, 20 November 1908, United States, Department of State, Numerical File, RG 59; Murray to the Foreign Secretary, 20 November 1908, FO 371/468.

41. Henry M. Smythe to W. W. Rockhill, 30 January 1897, CD.

42. Ibid.; Smythe to the State Department, 6 February 1897; Battiste to David Hill, 18 July 1900; Terres to Loomis, 27 April 1903, CD.

43. Chatelain, La Banque Nationale, p. 46; Louis Gation, Aspects de l'économie et des finances d'Haïti (Port-au-Prince: Imp. du College Vertiéres, 1944), p. 191; Murray to the Foreign Secretary, 3 December 1910, and 11 November 1910, FO 371/915.

44. Gérard Pierre-Charles, L'Economie haïtienne et sa voie de développement (Paris: Editions G.-P. Maisonneuve et Larose, 1967), p. 137; Powell to Hay, 20 July 1904, CD; H. P. Davis's memorandum, n. d., DF, 838.616/175; W. E. Aughinbaugh, Selling Latin America (Boston: Small, Maynard, and Company, 1915), pp. 297, 298.

45. For examples, Powell to Sherman, 5 May 1898, CD; Le Matin, 17 June 1908, pp. 2–3; Furniss to the Secretary of State, 16 February 1912, DF, 838.51/305.

46. Vansittart to the Foreign Secretary, 31 December 1904, FO 35/180; the British Consul's General Report, 1906, FO 371/266; Nicholls, Economic Dependence, pp. 18–19, 27.

47. Frédéric Marcelin, Les Finances d'Haïti (Paris: Kugelmann, 1911), pp. 38, 39; Marcelin, Au Gré du Souvenir, p. 7; David Lowenthal, West Indian Societies (New York: Oxford University Press, 1972), pp. 197, 198, 210.

48. Leslie F. Manigat, L'Amérique Latine au XXe siècle, 1889-1929 (Paris: Editions Richelieu, 1972), pp. 70–71; Gation, Aspects de l'économie, p. 191.

49. Audain père, Du changement, pp. 12, 13–14, 15; Douglass to Blaine, 15 February 1890, CD; J. N. Léger, La Politique extérieure de la République d'Haïti (Paris: Marpon et Flammarion, 1886), pp. 21–31, 36–56.

50. Léger, La Politique, p. 57.

51. Vansittart to the Foreign Secretary, 31 December 1904, FO 35/180; Consul's General Report on the Republic of Hayti, 1906, p. 2, FO 371/266. By 1926 the number of claims filed for the years 1899–1916 had reached 73,269 and amounted to nearly $40 million. Ludwell Lee Montague, Haiti and the United States, 1714-1938 (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1940), pp. 245–46.

52. Alexandre Poujol, “De la nationalité dans la République d'Haiti,” Revue du Droit International Public, 1902, p. 15.

53. Léger, La Politique, pp. 47–53.

54. Fernand Hibbert, Scènes de la vie haïtienne: Les Thazar (Port-au-Prince: Imp. de l'Abeille, 1907), p. 109; Yvette Tardieu Feldman, “De la colonie à l'occupation: les étrangers chez Hibbert,” Conjonction 122–23 (1974): 24.

55. Descos, En Haiti, pp. xxiv, xxv; Le Nouvelliste, 5 November 1908, p. 2. The association of light skin color and European features with social mobility also played a role in the preference for European spouses. See Micheline Labelle, Idélogie de couleur et classes sociales en Haiti (Montréal: Les Presses de l'Université de Montréal, 1978); Nicholls, From Dessalines to Duvalier, Harry Hoetink, Caribbean Race Relations: A Study of Two Variants (New York: Oxford University, 1967); Harry Hoetink, Slavery and Race Relations in the Americas (New York: Harper and Row, 1973).

56. Theodora Holly, “The Haitian Girl: An Analysis,” Negro World, 28 February 1925, p. 7.

57. Léger, La Politique, pp. 24, 25.

58. Marcelin, Les Finances d'Haïti, p. 38.

59. The most useful of these included: Livre bleu d'Haïti/Blue Book of Haiti; Descos, En Haiti; Records of the Gendarmerie d'Haïti (Garde d'Haïti), 1915–34, United States Marine Corps Records, RG 127, NA; Georges Corvington, Port-au-Prince au cours des ans, vol. 4 (Port-au-Prince: Henri Deschamps, 1976); Pean, L'Illusion héroique.

60. Statistique générale, pp. 54, 57.

61. Ibid.

62. Ibid.

63. Bureau of the American Republics, Commercial Directory of Haiti and Santo Domingo, Bulletin no. 29 (Washington, D.C.: 1891).

64. Vincent, En posant des jalons, vol. 1, p. 218; Furniss to Root, 24 September 1908, Numerical File 2126, 306–7.

65. Descos, pp. 234, 264, 272–73; Pan American Union, Proceedings of the Pan American Commerce Conference, 13–17 February 1911, (Washington, D.C.: 1911), p. 78; Marcelin, Au Gré du Souvenir, pp. 182–83.

66. Herbert Feis, Europe, the World's Banker (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1930), p. 50; Abrams and Miller, “Who Were the French Colonialists?”; Warren G. Kneer, Great Britain and the Caribbean, 1901–1913: A Study of Anglo-American Relations (East Lansing: Michigan State University, 1975), pp. ix–xv. For local examples, see Powell to Hay, 31 August 1901, CD; Vansittart to Lansdowne, 5 January 1904, FO 35/180; Furniss to Root, 1 January 1908, Numerical File, 2126/39; Adee to Furniss, 14 September 1910, DF, 838.602/2; Furniss to the Secretary of State, 19 December 1911, DF, 838.111/41; William Jennings Bryan to Woodrow Wilson, 25 February 1915, in U.S. Department of State, The Lansing Papers, 2 vols. (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1939), p. 465.

67. Feis, Europe, pp. 33–78; Manigat, “Substitution,” pp. 341–42 and n. 1; Richard Challener, Admirals, Generals, and American Foreign Policy, 1898-1914 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1973), pp. 399–400; Kneer, Great Britain and the Caribbean, pp. 214–25.

68. James Weldon Johnson, Along This Way (New York: Viking Press, 1933), p. 262; James Weldon Johnson, “Why Latin America Dislikes the United States,” MSS in the James Weldon Collection, Yale University; Archibald Colquhoun, Greater America (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1904), pp. 118–20.

69. James A. Padgett, “Diplomats to Haiti and Their Diplomacy,” Journal of Negro History 25 (July 1940): 265–330; Vansittart to the Foreign Secretary, 11 March 1904, and 7 June 1904, both FO 35/180. On racial discrimination against Haitians, Powell to Hay, 29 May 1904, CD; Le Soir, 14 June 1904; Emile Paultre, Essai sur M. Price-Mars (Port-au-Prince: Les Editions des Antilles, 1966), p. 35; New York Times, 5 January 1910, p. 8, col. 2.

70. Turnier, Les Etats-Unis, pp. 163–95; Nicholls, “Economic Dependence,” pp. 25–27; Brenda Gayle Plummer, “Race, Nationality, and Trade in the Caribbean: The Syrians in Haiti, 1903–34,” The International History Review 3 (Oct. 1981): 517–39.

71. Montague, Haiti and the United States, pp. 163–72.

72. Powell to Sherman, 5 May 1898, CD; Adee to Powell, 5 October 1903, Foreign Relations, 1903, p. 378; Vansittart to the Foreign Secretary, 17 March 1904, FO 35/181.

73. Turnier, Les Etats-Unis, pp. 161–95; Plummer, “Race, Nationality,” pp. 526, 538–39.

74. The Haitian Minister to Murville Férère, 18 March 1904, Kurt Fisher Collection, Schomberg Research Center, New York Public Library; Adee to Van Dyne, 6 November 1905, CD; Vansittart to the Foreign Secretary, 17 March 1904, FO 35/181.

75. Battiste to the State Department, 20 August 1900, CD; A. Cohen to the Foreign Secretary, 17 May 1901, FO 35/176.

76. Powell to Hay, 31 August 1901, CD; Abrams and Miller, “Who were the French Colonialists?”, pp. 687, 706; Feis, Europe, pp. x, xi, 33–59, 129, 134, 158–59.

77. Léger to Férère, 8 August 1905, CD.

78. Passport Bureau memorandum; and Powell to Hay, 17 August 1904, and 14 September 1904, CD.

79. Powell to Hay, 13 March 1905, CD.

80. Lawson, Coppock, and Hart to the Foreign Undersecretary, 5 August 1904, and appended note, FO 35/181. Compare Lucien J. Jerome to the Foreign Secretary, 14 November 1905, FO 35/182, and instructions to Vansittart, 23 February 1905, FO 35/181.

81. Foreign Office to Abraham Shameh, 29 August 1904, FO 35/181.

82. Vansittart to Grey, 18 July 1906, FO 371/81.

83. Ibid; idem to idem, 6 June 1905; Jerome to the Foreign Secretary, 23 August 1905, FO 35/182.

84. Kneer, Great Britain and the Caribbean, pp. 119–28, 214–15.

85. Powell to Hay, 17 November 1897, and 30 January 1901, CD.

86. Furniss to the Secretary of State, 30 April 1912, DF, 838.42; Schmidt, The U.S. Occupation, p. 34.

87. Le Soir, 6 December 1899; Powell to Hay, 10 July 1904, CD; Furniss to the Secretary of State, 19 August 1911, DF, 838.00/675.

88. Vansittart to the Foreign Secretary, 1 March 1905, FO 35/182; Manigat, “Substitution,” p. 336.

89. Manigat, LAmérique Latine.

90. Manigat, “Substitution,” pp. 322–23; Vansittart to Lansdowne, 11 March 1904, FO 35/180; Alexander Murray, Annual Report, 1910, FO 371/915; Patrick Bellegarde-Smith, “Haiti: Perspectives of Foreign Policy: An Essay on the International Relations of a Small State,” Caribbean Quarterly 20 (Sept.–Dec. 1974): 21–35.

91. Léger to Adee, 30 March 1905; Léger to Férère, 18 April 1905; Léger to the Haitian Secretary of State, 25 March 1907, Eugene Maximilien Collection, Schomburg Research Center, New York Public Library. Alexander Murray to the Foreign Secretary, 3 December 1910, FO 371/915.

92. Oliver Wardrop to the Foreign Secretary, 8 April 1903, FO 35/179; Bellegarde to A. N. Léger, 12 June 1932, Maximilien Collection; Powell to Hay, 17 May 1902, enclosure no. 1, CD; James P. MacDonald to R. W. Austin, 8 July 1912, DF, 838.6156M14/1; Furniss to Root, 13 October 1908, Numerical File, 2126/308; Dantès Bellegarde, Ecrivains haïtiens (Port-au-Prince: Société des Editions et de Librairie, 1947), pp. 146–48; Waller to Lejeune, 20 August 1917, John A. Lejeune Papers, Library of Congress, Washington, D.C.

93. Furniss to the Secretary of State, 6 June 1910, DF, 838.77/1; John Russell, Daily Diary Report, 5 May 1920, DF, 838.00/1641; Munro, Intervention, p. 246.

94. Furniss to the Secretary of State, 30 May 1910, DF, 838.6102.

95. State Department Register, 1916; Roger Gaillard, Les Cent-Jours de Rosalvo Bobo (Port-au-Prince: Presses Nationales, 1973), p. 18, n. 12; Whitefield McKinlay to Furniss, 18 July 1921, Whitefield McKinlay Papers, Carter G. Woodson Collection, Library of Congress.

96. Frédéric Marcelin, Bric-à-brac (Paris: Société anonyme de l'Imp. Kugelmann, 1910), pp. 53–56; Russell to the Secretary of State, 13 February 1928, DF, 838.00/2442; Nicholls, “Idéologies,” pp. 656–57.

97. Policy governing the establishment of the Haitian protectorate is discussed in Schmidt, The United States Occupation of Haiti; David F. Healy, Gunboat Diplomacy in the Wilson Era: The U.S. Navy in Haiti, 1915-1916 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1976); Arthur S. Link, Wilson: The Struggle for Neutrality (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1960), pp. 497–99.

98. Livre bleu/Blue Book: D. J. Donahoe to the Chief of the Gendarmerie, 17 October 1928; S. Rosenthal to Gen. F. E. Evans, 18 October 1928, Gendarmerie Records.

99. O.W. Barrett, Agricultural Survey of Haiti, in Russell to the Secretary of State, 9 October 1922, DF, 838.61/21; Winthrop R. Scott to the State Department, 25 March 1924, 838.6159/21; Moral, Le Paysan haitien, pp. 64–65; Perceval Thoby Dépossessions (Port-au-Prince: Imp. “La Presse,” 1930), pp. 11, 12, 15; Lélio Laville, La Traite des nègres au XX e siècle ou les Dessous de l'émmigration haïtienne à Cuba (Port-au-Prince: Imp. Nouvelle, 1933); Arismendi Díaz Santana, “The Role of Haitian Braceros in Dominican Sugar Production,” Latin American Perspectives 3 (Winter 1976):120–32.

100. For accounts of the bank loan and reorganization of 1910, see Manigat “Substitution;” Munro, Intervention, pp. 245–55. For merchant banking after 1910, see Furniss to the Secretary of State, 16 February 1912, DF, 838.51/305; République d'Haïti, Exposé générale de la République d'Haïti, 1913, p. 25; G. Ph. Nieder to the Secretary of State, 10 December 1914, DF, 838.51/375; idem to idem, 23 December 1914, DF, 838.51/376; testimony of Rear Admiral William B. Caperton, Senate, Inquiry, pp. 299, 323; Munro, Intervention, pp. 336, 373. For the continuance of merchant banking in Latin America in general, see Aughinbaugh, Selling Latin America, p. 297.