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³ Pliny, , Natural history, VI, xxvi, 1012.Google Scholar

⁴ Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, ed. Schoff, , sections 424.Google Scholar

⁵ Periplus, p. 57.Google Scholar

⁶ Periplus, section 6.Google Scholar

⁷ Periplus, section 14.Google Scholar

⁸ Forbes, R. J., Studies in ancient technology, V, 103.Google Scholar

⁹ Periplus, section 7.Google Scholar It is maintained by Miller, J. I. (The spice trade of the Roman Empire, Oxford, 1969) that cinnamon, not being native to Africa, was brought from Indonesia direct to Madagascar and Rhapta, and thence to the Somalia of the present day.Google Scholar

¹⁰ Al-Mas'd, , Les prairies d'or, tr. Pellat, Charles Tom, II, 323 (III, 8).Google Scholar

¹¹ Kobishchanov, Yu. M., The problem of sea voyages of ancient Africans in the Indian Ocean, Journal of African History, VI, 1965, 13741,CrossRefGoogle Scholar reviews the evidence for this trade. See further Mordini, A., Gli aurei Kushana del convento di Dabra Dmo, Atti del convengo intemazionale di studi etiopici, Rome, Accademia dei Lincei, 1960, 24854;Google Scholaridem, Gold Kushana coins in the convent of Dabra Damo, Journal of the Numismatic Society of India, XXIX, pt. 2, 1967, 1925;Google ScholarGbi, R., Der ksanische Goldmnzschatz von Debra Damo (thiopien) 1940, Central Asian Journal, XIV, 1970, 24152.Google Scholar

¹² The question of the Daybuls is examined in Chittick, N., The Shiiazi colonization of East Africa, Journal of African History, VI, 1965, 290.Google Scholar

¹³ Freeman-Grenville, G. S. P., The mediaeval history of the coat of Tanganyika, London, 1962, 141.Google Scholar

¹⁴ III, 9, op. cit, 3234.Google Scholar

¹⁵ Nuzhat al-mushtq, First Clime, eighth section. He also writes (First Clime, seventh section) of the production of iron at Mombasa and at Mulanda (Malindi; or perhaps Manda, on the coast of what is now Kenya). The identification with Java is proposed by Ahmad, S. Maqbul, India and the neighbouring territories, Leiden, 1960.Google Scholar Cerulli et al. in their new redaction of al-ldrs, Opus geographicaum, Naples, 1970, prefer the reading Ranaj (p. 67).Google Scholar

¹⁶ Encyclopaedia of Islam, second edition, s.v. Habsh (by Burton-Page, J.).Google Scholar

¹⁷ Cf. Hirth, F. and Rockhill, W. W., Chao Ju-Kua, 126.Google Scholar

¹⁸ Theal, C. McC., Records of south-eastern Africa: collected in various libraries and archive departments in Europe, VI, 135.Google Scholar

¹⁹ op. cit., 83 (de Goes).Google Scholar

²⁰ ibid.

²¹ Freeman-Grenville, G. S. P., The East African coast, Oxford, 1962, 52.Google Scholar

²² op. cit., 251 (de Barros, ).Google Scholar

²³ The Book of Duarte Barbosa, ed. Dames, , Hakluyt Society, 1918, 5.Google Scholar

²⁴ The references are summarized by Schofield, J. F. in Summers, R., Inyanga, Cambridge, 1958, 1834.Google Scholar

²⁵ Theal, , VI, 266.Google Scholar

²⁶ The passage is quoted in Di Meglio, R. R. Arab trade with Indonesia and the Malay Peninsula from the eighth to the sixteenth century, in Richards, D. S. (ed.), Islam and the trade of Asia, Oxford, 1970.Google Scholar

²⁷ Arkell, , Cambay and the bead trade, Antiquity, X, 1936, 299305.Google Scholar

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²⁹ Davison, Claire C. and Clark, J. DesmondTrade wind beads, an interim report on chemical studies, Azania, IX, 1974, 7586.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

³⁰ W. G. N. van der Sleen devoted much work to this problem (see notably A handbook of beads, Liege, 1967Google Scholar) which is valuable as regards the European trade; the matter concerned with earlier beads is unfortunately lacking in precision and documentation. Works important in connection with beads in the interior include the chapter on Zimbabwe beads in Summers, R. and Robinson, K. R., Zimbabwe excavations, 1958,Google Scholar and the chapter by Schofield in Summers, R., Inyanga, cited above.Google Scholar For the East African coast see Kirkman, J. S., The Arab city of Gedi, 1954; the statement therein (p. 134)Google Scholar that most of the glass beads came from the Near East seems, however, to be unsupported by evidence. On Kilwa, see Chittick, H. N., Kilwa, an Islamic trading city on the East African coast, 2 vols., Nairobi, 1974.Google Scholar

³¹ Chittick, H. N., Kisimani Mafia, Dar es Salaam, 1961, 12.Google Scholar

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³³ idem, East African coin finds and their significance, Journal of African History, I, 1960, 35.Google Scholar

³⁴ Chittick, , Kilwa, 330, types 39 and 41.Google Scholar

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³⁶ This is the earliest port site yet examined on the East African coast, having been at its most prosperous in the 9th and 10th centuries (see Chittick, H. N., Discoveries in the Lamu archipelago, Azania, II, 1967Google Scholar, and the forthcoming article in Azania, XIV, 1979).Google Scholar

³⁷ Rogers, M., China and Islam the archaeological evidence in the Mashriq in Islam and the trade of Asia, Oxford, 1970.Google Scholar

³⁸ Garlake, P. S., The early Islamic architecture of the East African coast, 1966, 115.Google Scholar

³⁹ ibid.

⁴⁰ Mennell, F. P. and Summers, R., The ancient workings of Southern Rhodesia (National Museums of Southern Rhodesia, Occasional Papers, Volume II, 1955, No. 20).Google Scholar

⁴¹ Summers, R., Zimbabwe, a Rhodesian mystery, Cape Town, 1963.Google Scholar

⁴² The travels of Ibn Battta, tr. Gibb, H. A. R., Hakluyt Society, 1962.Google Scholar

⁴³ Burton-Page, J., The problem of the introduction of Adansonia digitata into India, in Ucko, P. J. and Dimbleby, G. W. (ed.), The domestication and exploitation of plants and animals, London, 1964.Google Scholar