Hostname: page-component-8448b6f56d-qsmjn Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-24T00:57:17.388Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Workers' Movements in the United States Confront Imperialism: The Progressive Era Experience1

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  08 November 2010

David Montgomery
David Montgomery
Affiliation:
Yale University
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

In 1898, the American Federation of Labor feared that colonial expansion would militarize the republic and undermine the living standards of American workers. Subsequent expansion of industrial production and of trade union membership soon replaced the fear of imperial expansion with an eagerness to enlarge the domain of American unions internationally alongside that of American business. In both Puerto Rico and Canada important groups of workers joined AFL unions on their own initiative. In Mexico, where major U.S. investments shaped the economy, anarcho-syndicalists enjoyed strong support on both sides of the border, and the path to union growth was opened by revolution. Consequently the AFL forged links there with a labor movement very different from itself. Unions in Mexico became tightly linked to their new government, while World War I drove the AFL's leaders into close collaboration with their own. The Pan-American Federation of Labor was more a product of diplomatic maneuvering than of class solidarity.

Type
2007 Shgape Distinguished Historian Address
Information
The Journal of the Gilded Age and Progressive Era , Volume 7 , Issue 1 , January 2008 , pp. 7 - 42
Copyright
Copyright © Society for Historians of the Gilded Age and Progressive Era 2008

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

2 Thistlethwaite, Frank, “Migration from Europe Overseas in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries,” Xle Congrès international des sciences bistorique, Rapports V: Histoire Contemporaine (Stockholm, 1960), 32–60Google Scholar;Mintz, Sidney, Sweetness and Power: The Place of Sugar in Modern History (New York, 1985), 126–47Google Scholar;Breman, Jan, Labour Migration and Rural Transformation in Colonial Asia (Amsterdam, 1990), 13–14Google Scholar;Northrup, David. Indentured Labor in the Age of Imperialism, 1834-1912 (New York, 1995), 26–31Google Scholar, 107-12; Renda, Mary A., Taking Haiti: Military Occupation and the Culture of U.S. Imperialism, 1915-1940 (Chapel Hill, 2001), 10Google Scholar, 117, 148-49; Engerman, Stanley, “Servants to Slaves to Servants: Contract Labor and European Expansion” in Colonialism and Migration: Indentured Labour before and after Slavery, ed. Emmer, P.C. (Dordrecht, 1986), 263–94CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

3 Haupt, Georges, comp., Bureau socialiste international: Comptes rendus des reunions, manifestes, et circulates (Paris, 1969), 1: 26–28Google Scholar, see esp. note 4 on 27-28; Gupta, Partha Sarathi, Imperialism and the British Labour Movement, 1914-1964 (London, 1975)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

4 , Haupt, Bureau socialiste, 29–31Google Scholar. My translation of the quotation on p. 30. “C'est la guerre sur tout le globe. Les budgets de la guerre montent, montent.…On dépense en fusils, canons, casernes, flottes, plus qu'on ne paye en salaries à des millions et encore des millions d'hommes, on massacre, on detruit, on incendie, on viole, on rue.”

5 See Trachtenberg, Alexander, American Socialists and the War (New York, 1917)Google Scholar;Weinstein, James, The Decline of Socialism in America, 1912-1925 (New York, 1967)Google Scholar.

6 American Federation of Labor: History, Encyclopedia, Reference Book (Washington, 1919), 192Google Scholar. See also Gompers, Samuel, Labor and the Common Welfare, comp. and ed. Robbins, Hayes (New York, 1919), 224–25Google Scholar.

7 Foner, Philip S., History of the Labor Movement in the United States (New York, 1955), 2: 405–12Google Scholar;Ginger, Ray, The Bending Cross: A. Biography of Eugene Victor Debs (New York, 1947), 203Google Scholar;Leon, Daniel De, “A Word to the Proletariat of Spain,” Daily People, Mar. 20, 1898Google Scholar, quoted in Coleman, Stephen, Daniel De Leon (New York, 1990), 59Google Scholar.

8 Montgomery, David, Citizen Worker: The Experience of Workers in the United States with Democracy and the Free Market during the Nineteenth Century (New York, 1993), 103Google Scholar;Foner, Philip S., Militarism and Organised Labor, 1900-1914 (Minneapolis, 1987), 24, 27, 36Google Scholar.

9 , Gompers, Labor and the Common Welfare, 228–29Google Scholar.

10 “An Address at the Chicago Peace Jubilee [Oct. 18, 1898]” in Samuel Gompers Papers, vol. 5, ed. Kaufman, Stuart B., Albert, Peter J., and Palladino, Grace (Urbana, 1996), 20–29Google Scholar, qts. on 22-23.

11 AFL, Proceedings, 1898, in Gompers Papers, 5: 43, 46.

12 Ibid., 5: 44-46.

13 “An Address at the National Conference on the Foreign Policy of the United States, Saratoga, N.Y.” in Gompers Papers, 5: 6; AFL Proceedings, 1898, in Gompers Papers, 5: 44, 46. Arguments similar to those of Reid were frequendy expressed in the British Trades Union Congress, especially by delegates from textile unions. See , Gupta, Imperialism and the British Labour Movement, 43–49Google Scholar.

14 See, for example, Mink, Gwendolyn, Old Labor and New Immigrants in American Political Development: Union, Party, and State, 1875-1920 (Ithaca, NY, 1986)Google Scholar;Scott, Jack, Yankee Unions Go Home: How the AFL Helped the U.S. Build an Empire in Latin America (Vancouver, 1978), 141–44Google Scholar.

15 Ratt, W. Dirk, Rewltosos: Mexico's Rebels in the United States, 1903-1923 (College Station, TX, 1981), 15, 258–59Google Scholar;Adamic, Louis, Dynamite: The Story of Class Violence in America, rev. ed. (Gloucester, MA, 1963), 203–09Google Scholar;Kazin, Michael, Barons of Labor: The San Francisco Building Trades and Union Power in the Progressive Era (Urbana, 1987), 202–05Google Scholar;, Scott, Yankee Unions, 147Google Scholar;Fields, Barbara J., “Slavery, Race and Ideology in the United States of America,” New Left Review 118 (May/June, 1990): 95–118Google Scholar. Eugene V. Debs argued against annexation of the Philippines, Puerto Rico, and Cuba in 1898, but he favored admitting Hawaii, because those islands were “composed in a degree of Caucasians, and…already have an established government.” Salvatore, Nick, Eugene V. Debs, Citizen and Socialist (Urbana, 1982), 226–27Google Scholar.

16 “Chicago Peace Jubilee,” Gompers Papers, 5: 29nl.

17 Beisner, Robert L., Twelve Against Empire: The Anti-Imperialists, 1898-1900 (New York, 1968)Google Scholar.

18 See Frank, Dana, Buy American: The Untold Story of Economic Nationalism (Boston, 1999), 47–55.Google Scholar

19 Downes v. Bidwell, 182 U.S. 244 (1901)Google Scholar in Commager, Henry Steele, Documents of American History (New York, 1947) 2: 193–98Google Scholar. See also , Scott, Yankee Unions, 129–31Google Scholar.

20 Hearst's reply to Gompers in the New York Evening Journal in Gompers Papers, 5: 64-66, quotes on 65 and 64n2. Hearst sponsored the film Patria in collaboration with the Navy Department. It warned of the peril of a joint Japanese-Mexican invasion of California. , Ratt, Kevoltosos, 266–68Google Scholar.

21 Mahan, A. T., The Interest of America in Sea Power (1897; Port Washington, NY, 1970), 183Google Scholar.

22 Williams, William Appleman, The Tragedy of American Diplomacy, rev. ed. (New York, 1962), 41Google Scholar.

23 , Commager, Documents, 2: 170Google Scholar. For an excellent review of recent studies of U.S. imperialism, see Greene, Julie, “The Labor of Empire: Recent Scholarship on U.S. History and Imperialism,” Labor: Studies in Working-Class History of the Americas 1 (Summer 2004): 113–29CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

24 Houle, François, “La crise et la place du Canada dans la nouvelle division internationale du travail” in Le Canada et la nouvelle division internationale du travail, ed. Cameron, Duncan and Houle, François (Ottawa, 1985), 84Google Scholar.

25 Rouillard, Jacques, Les syndicates nationaux auQuebec de 1900 a 1930 (Quebec 1979), 39Google Scholar. On investments in Mexico, see Cockcroft, James D., Intellectual Precursors of the Mexican Revolution, 1900-1913 (Austin, 1968), 18–23Google Scholar.

26 Kealey, Gregory S., “The Writing of Social History in English Canada, 1970-84” in , Kealey, Workers and Canadian History (Montreal, 1995), 137Google Scholar.

27 , Rouillard, Syndicats nationaux, 39–40Google Scholar.

28 Gordon, David M., Edwards, Richard, and Reich, Michael, Segmented Work, Divided Workers: The Historical Transformation of Labor in the United States (New York, 1982), 103Google Scholar;Nelson, Daniel, Managers and Workers: Origins of the New Factory System in the United States, 1880-1920 (Madison, 1975), 9Google Scholar;Iron Age, Apr. 18, 1912Google Scholar;Montgomery, David, Fall of the House of Labor: The Workplace, the State, and American Labor Activism, 1865-1925 (New York, 1987), 214–18CrossRefGoogle Scholar;, Scott, Yankee Unions, 148–50Google Scholar.

29 , Montgomery, Fall of the House of Labor, 5–6Google Scholar.

30 Ibid., 262-81.

31 Kornbluh, Joyce L., Rebel Voices:An I.W.W. Anthology (Ann Arbor, 1972), 13Google Scholar. This refers to the 1908 wording of the IWW preamble.

32 Ibid., 35. See also Dubofsky, Melvyn, We Shall Be All: A History of the Industrial Workers of the World (Chicago, 1969)Google Scholar;Proceedings of the First Convention of the Industrial Workers of the World (New York, 1905)Google Scholar.

33 Simon, S. Fanny, “Anarchism and Anarcho-Syndicalism in South America,” Hispanic American Historical Review 26 (Feb. 1946): 38–59CrossRefGoogle Scholar;Spaulding, Hobart, Organised Labor in Latin America: Historical Case Studies of Urban Workers in Dependent Societies (New York, 1977), 59Google Scholar;Thorpe, Wayne, “El Ferrol, Rio de Janeiro, Zimmerwald, and Beyond: Syndicalist Internationalism, 1914-1918,” Revue Beige de Philologie et d'Histoire 84 (2006): 1005–24CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

34 On municipal socialism, see Stromquist, Shelton, Reinventing “The People”: The Progressive Movement, the Class Problem, and the Origins of Modern Liberalism (Urbana, 2006), 30–31Google Scholar, 76-86; Scott, Joan Wallach, “Social History and the History of Socialism: French Socialist Municipalities in the 1890s,” Le Mouvement Social III (Apr-June 1980): 145–53CrossRefGoogle Scholar;Thompson, E. P., “Homage to Tom Maguire” in Essays in Labour History, ed. Briggs, Asa and Saville, John (London, 1967), 276–316Google Scholar;Montgomery, David, “Racism, Immigrants, and Political Reform” Journal of American History 87 (March 2001): 1266–69CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

35 Machinists Monthly Journal quoted in Greene, Julie, “As I Am a True American: White U.S. Workers, Race, Empire, and Citizenship in the Canal Zone, 1904 to 1914,”Google Scholar unpublished paper presented at the OAH annual convention, Apr. 4, 2003; , Greene, ”The 13th Labor of Hercules”: The United States and the Building of the Panama Canal, 1903 to 1915 (New York: forthcoming)Google Scholar, cited by permission of the author; , Greene, “Spaniards on the Silver Roll: Labor Troubles and Liminality in the Panama Canal Zone, 1904-1914,” International Tabor and Working-Class History 66 (Fall 2004): 78–98Google Scholar.

36 Berner, Richard C., Seattle 1900-1920: From Boomtown, Urban Turbulence, to Restoration (Seattle, 1991), 76, 110–53Google Scholar. On the University of Washington, see Fujita-Rony, Dorothy, American Workers, Colonial Power: Philippine Seattle and the Transpacific West, 1919-1941 (Berkeley, 2003), 61–67Google Scholar.

37 Walling, William English, Socialism As It Is: A Survey of the World-Wide Revolutionary Movement (New York, 1913)Google Scholar;Vandervelde, Emile, Socialism Versus the State, trans. Kerr, Charles H. (1914; Chicago, 1919)Google Scholar.

38 Croly, Herbert, The Promise of American Life, ed. Schlesinger, Arthur M. Jr, (1909; Cambridge, MA, 1965), 169Google Scholar. See also Gillette, Howard Jr, “The Military Occupation of Cuba, 1899-1902: Workshop for American Progressivism,” American Quarterly 25 (Oct. 1973): 410–25CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

39 Zwick, Jim, “The Anti-Imperialist League and the Origins of Filipino-American Oppositional Solidarity,” Amerasia Journal 24 (Summer 1998): 65–85CrossRefGoogle Scholar;Johnston, Robert D., The Radical Middle Class: Populist Democracy and the Question of Capitalism in Progressive Era Portland (Princeton, 2003), 35–37Google Scholar. The platforms of the Democratic Party continued to advocate independence for the Philippines in 1904, 1908, and 1912. Kirk, Grayson L., Philippine Independence: Motives, Problems, and Prospects (New York, 1936), 38–39Google Scholar.

40 Faires, Nora, “Leaving the ‘Land of the Second Chance’: Migration from Ontario to the Great Lakes States in the Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Centuries”Google Scholar(unpublished paper in possession of the author); Ramirez, Bruno, On the Move: French-Canadian and Italian Migrants in the North Atlantic Economy, 1860-1914 (Toronto, 1991)Google Scholar;Hareven, Tamara K. and Langenbach, Randolph, Amoskeag: Life and Work in an American Factory City (New York, 1978)Google Scholar;Avery, Donald, “Dangerous Foreigners“: European Immigrant Workers and Labour Radicalism in Canada, 1896-1932 (Toronto, 1979)Google Scholar;Schwantes, Carlos A., Radical Heritage: Labor, Socialism, and Reform in Washington and British Columbia, 1885-1917 (Seattle, 1979)Google Scholar;Mathieu, Marie Sarah-Jane, “Jim Crow Rides This Train: The Social and Political Impact of African American Sleeping Car Porters in Canada, 1880-1939” (PhD diss., Yale University, 2001)Google Scholar.

41 Kealey, Gregory S. and Palmer, Brian D., Dreaming of What Might Be: The Knights of Labor in Ontario, 1880-1900 (Cambridge, 1982)Google Scholar;, Kealey, “1919: The Canadian Labour Revolt”Google Scholar in , Kealey, Workers and Canadian History (Montreal, 1995), 289–326Google Scholar;Penner, Norman, ed., Winnipeg 1919: The Strikers' Own History of the Winnipeg General Strike, 2nd ed. (Toronto, 1975)Google Scholar;Bercuson, David J., Fools and Wise Men: The Rise and Fall of the One Big Union (Toronto, 1978)Google Scholar;, Bercuson, “The One Big Union in Washington,” Pacific Northwest Quarterly 69 (July 1978): 127–34Google Scholar.

42 , Rouillard, Syndicats Nationaux, 12–41Google Scholar;Babcock, Robert H., Gompers in Canada: A Study in American Continentalism before the First World War (Toronto, 1974), 38–71CrossRefGoogle Scholar;Kaufman, Stuart B., Albert, Peter J., and Palladino, Grace, eds., Samuel Gompers Papers, vol. 4 (Urbana, 1992), 471n2Google Scholar.

43 , Rouillard, Syndicats Nationaux, 31–36Google Scholar;, Babcock, Gompers in Canada, 61–76Google Scholar. Flett could speak no French.

44 , Rouillard, Syndicats Nationaux, 56–59Google Scholar. Both Tobin and Gompers appealed to large strike rallies without speaking French. On the origins of the Boot and Shoe Workers and its union label policy, see Blewett, Mary H., Men, Women, and Work: Class, Gender, and Protest in the New England Shoe Industry, 1780-1910 (Urbana, 1988)Google Scholar.

45 , Rouillard, Syndicats nationaux, 74–82Google Scholar, quote 79; , Babcock, Gompers in Canada, 85–97Google Scholar; “Excerpts from the Minutes of a Meeting of the Executive Council of the AFL” in Samuel Gompers Papers, vol. 6, ed. Kaufman, Stuart B., Albert, Peter J., and Palladino, Grace (Urbana, 1997), 134–36Google Scholar.

46 , Babcock, Gompers in Canada, 111–42Google Scholar;, Rouilkrd, Syndicats Nationaux, 157–204Google Scholar. In the very different context of the 1960s, that Catholic union movement was to be transformed into the militant and intensely political Confederation des Syndicats Nationaux. See Rouillard, Jacques, Histoire de la CSN, 1921-1981 (Montreal, 1981)Google Scholar.

47 AFL, Report of Proceedings of the Twenty-Fifth Annual Convention, 1905 (Washington, 1905), 17Google Scholar.

48 Ibid., 18.

49 The 1900 resolution is quoted in Taft, Philip, The A.F. of L. in the Time of Gompers (New York, 1957), 422Google Scholar.AFL, Report of the Proceedings of the Twenty-Fourth Annual Convention, 1904 (Washington, 1904), 8Google Scholar.

50 For discussions AFL's insistence on national autonomy in the world trade unionism, see , Taft, A.F. of L., 418–26Google Scholar;Mandel, Bernard, Samuel Gompers: A Biography (Yellow Springs, OH, 1963), 331–33Google Scholar.

51 Pagan, Igualdad Iglesias de, El Obrerismo en Puerto Rico: Hpoca de Santiago Iglesias (1896-1905) (San Juan, Puerto Rico, 1973), 35–41Google Scholar;Rivera, Angel G. Quintero, Patridosjplebe yos: burgueses, hacendados, artesanosj obreros: Las relaciones de clase en el Puerto Rico de cambio de siglio (Rio Piedras, Puerto Rico, 1988), 247–69Google Scholar. Igualdad Iglesias's biography of Santiago Iglesias has proven especially useful because it reproduces many movement texts at considerable length. For a revealing sample of Ramon Rivera's writing, see Rivera, Angel Quintero, Workers' Struggle in Puerto Rico: A Documentary History, trans. Belfrage, Cedric (New York, 1976), 17–39Google Scholar.

52 , Iglesias, Obrerismo, 37Google Scholar.

53 , Iglesias, Obrerismo, 194Google Scholar. My translation of Munoz Rivera's passage, written in 1891: “todavia no hemos sacudir a esas masas, rompriendo el hielo de su indiferencia y encendiendo en su curazon el sacro fuego del patriotismo.” Rivera, Quintero, Patricias y plebeyos, 260Google Scholar.

54 Sanchez, Maria Dolores Luque de, La Occupation Norteamericanay la Ley Foraker (La Opinion Publica Puertorriquena), 1898-1904 (Rio Piedras, Puerto Rico, 1980), 138Google Scholar. For a useful discussion of historians' controversies over Puerto Rican reception of the U.S. invasion, see Martinez-Fernandez, Luis, “Puerto Rico in the Whirlwind of 1898: Conflict, Continuity, and Chance,” special issue on War of 1898, OAH Magazine of History 12 (Spring 1998): 24–29CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

55 Sánchez, Luque de, La Occupation Norteamericana, 95–133Google Scholar;Findlay, Eileen J., “Love in the Tropics: Marriage, Divorce, and the Construction of Benevolent Colonialism in Puerto Rico, 1898-1910” in Close Encounters of Empire: Writing the Cultural History of US.-Latin American Relations, ed. Joseph, Gilbert M., LeGrand, Catherine C., and Salvatore, Ricardo D. (Durham, NC, 1998), 147Google Scholar, 153-54, 158-59. Within a decade, popular tales came to include the theme of dangerously free women who earned their own livings and were defiant toward men. Guerra, Lillian, Popular Expression and National Identity in Puerto Rico: The Struggle for Self, Community, and Nation (Gainesville, FL, 1998), 38-39, 194–96Google Scholar.

56 Bergad, Laird W, Coffee and the Growth of Agrarian Capitalism in Nineteenth-Century Puerto Rico (Princeton, 1983), 198–209Google Scholar;Iglesias, Igualdad, Obrerismo, 57–58Google Scholar, 101-02, 135; , Guerra, Popular Expression, 181–83Google Scholar, 200-09; Pacheco, Blanca Silvestrini de, Los trabajadores puertorriquenosy el Pariido Sotialista (1932-1940) (Rio Piedras, Puerto Rico, 1978), 17–18Google Scholar.

57 , Iglesias, Obrerismo, 48–49, 73-74Google Scholar

58 Ibid., 21-24, 47-48. The U.S. military commander did interrogate Iglesias but released him upon concluding that Iglesias was not a supporter of anarchist propaganda by deed. Several prominent statesmen were assassinated by anarchists between 1896 and 1901, among them President William McKinley.

59 Ibid., 50. On the SLP, see pp. 73-76. Actually, the organization formed in 1899 was the Federation Regional de los Trabajadores de Puerto Rico (FLT). The FLT broke away later in the year and reorganized when the original group declared its support for the island's Republican Party. Iglesias went to Washington in 1899 and testified on behalf of the FLT in favor of annexation. Sanchez, Luque de, La Occupation Norteamericana, 57Google Scholar.

60 , Iglesias, Obrerismo, 101–06Google Scholar;Iglesias, César Andreu, ed., Memoirs of Bernardo Vega: A Contribution to the History of the Puerto Rican Community in New York, trans. Flores, Juan (New York, 1984), 84–85Google Scholar.

61 For a study that emphasizes the importance of conspiracy cases to the AFL, see Hattam, Victoria C., Labor Visions and State Power: The Origins of Business Unionism in the United States (Princeton, 1993)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

62 “Excerpts from Accounts of the 1900 Convention of the AFL in Louisville, Ky.” in Gompers Papers, 5: 278-81, qt. on 280.

63 George Cortelyou to Gov. William H. Hunt, Oct. 19, 1901, Cortelyou Papers, Series 1, Box 2, Letterbook 5, 323, Library of Congress. I am indebted to Grace Palladino for this information. See also Whittaker, William G., “The Santiago Iglesias Case, 1901-1902: Origins of American Trade Union Involvement in Puerto Rico,” The Americas 24 (Apr. 1968): 378–93CrossRefGoogle Scholar;, Iglesias, Obrerismo, 118–32Google Scholar, 166-82; , Iglesias, Bernado Vega, 92–96Google Scholar; Santiago Iglesias to Gov. Hunt, Nov. 9, 1901, and Iglesias to Gompers, Nov. 12, 1901, Gompers Papers, microform, reel 53, 513-15, 520-21.

64 Rivera, Quinto, Workers' Struggle, 62–63Google Scholar. AFL-style union practice had already created tensions within the Puerto Rican labor movement. See Bird-Carmona, Ajrturo, “Between the Insular Road and San Juan Bay: The Cigar World of Puerta de Tierra” (PhD diss., University of Iowa, 1998), 109–13Google Scholar.

65 “From Edward Rosenberg,” in Gompers Papers, 6: 4-5; , Kazin, Barons of Labor, 29-30, 52Google Scholar.

66 , Renda, Taking Haiti, 310–11Google Scholar.

67 , Bird-Carmona, “Insular Road,” 58–79Google Scholar, 170-83; “An Excerpt from an Article in the Washington Star” in Gompers Papers, 6: 423-29.

68 , Quintero-Rivera, Workers' Struggle, 52–53Google Scholar.

69 , Quintero-Rivera, Patricias, 110–79Google Scholar;, Quintero-Rivera, Workers' Struggle, 86–112Google Scholar;Bird-Carmora, Arturo, A limaj machete”: La huegla canera de 1915 y fundacion del Partido Socialista (Rio Peidras, Puerto Rico, 2001)Google Scholar; “To Woodrow Wilson” in Samuel Gompers Papers, vol. 9, ed. Albert, Peter J. and Palladino, Grace (Urbana, 2003), 410–11Google Scholar.

70 Scarano, Francisco A., Puerto Rico: Cinco siglos de historia (Santafé de Bogota, Colombia, 1993), 654–58Google Scholar, 670-92. The quotations are from the 1919 party program, reproduced in ibid., 655. Between 1919 and 1924, several AFL state federations, especially in the Midwest and Canada, also helped create political parties.

71 , Silvestrini, Los trabajadores puertorriquenos, 59–127Google Scholar, 148-57, song on 73; Glasser, Ruth, My Music Is My Flag: Puerto Rican Musicians and Their New York Communities, 1917-1940 (Berkeley, 1993), 163–68Google Scholar;, Scarano, Puerto Rico, 701Google Scholar;Mintz, Sidney W., Taso: trabajador de la caiia (Rio Piedras, Puerto Rico, 1988), 178–84Google Scholar; this is a translation of , Mintz, A Puerto Rican Life History (Westport, CT, 1974Google Scholar) with a bibliography and chronology by Francisco A. Scarano.

72 , Scarano, Puerto Rico, 694–701Google Scholar;Meyer, Gerald, Vito Marcantonio: Radical Politician, 1902-1954 (Albany, 1989), 150–55Google Scholar. A Nationalist interpretation of these events can be found in Martinez, Rubén Berríos, La independenda de Puerto Rico: Ratión y lucha (Mexico City, 1983), 104–11, 184-89Google Scholar.

73 , Scarano, Puerto Rico, 718Google Scholar; cf. Steven Fraser's interpretation of the relationship between the New Deal and the CIO in Labor Will Rule: Sidney Hillman and the Rise of American Labor (New York, 1991)Google Scholar. For a clear, concise discussion of the partial success of Operation Bootstrap and the subsequent collapse of Puerto Rico's economy in the 1970s, see Bernabe, Rafael, “Puerto Rico's New Era: A Crisis in Crisis Management, NACLA Report on the Americas 40 (Nov/Dec. 2007): 15–20CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

74 Montejano, David, Anglos and Mexicans in the Making of Texas, 1836-1986 (Austin, 1987)Google Scholar;Tannenbaum, Frank, Peace by Revolution: Mexico after 1910 (New York, 1966), 226–30Google Scholar;Johnson, Benjamin Heber, Revolution in Texas: How a Forgotten Rebellion and Its Bloody Suppression Turned Mexicans into Americans (New Haven, 2003)Google Scholar;Herzog, Jesus Silva, Un Ensayo sobre la Revolution Mexicana (Mexico City, 1946)Google Scholar;Pletcher, David M., Rails, Mines, and Progress: Seven American 'Promoters in Mexico, 1867-1911 (Ithaca, NY, 1958)Google Scholar;Katz, Friedrich, Secret War in Mexico: Europe, the United States, and the Mexican Revolution (Chicago, 1981), 226–29Google Scholar, 558.; Snodgrass, Michael David, “The Birth and Consequences of Industrial Paternalism in Monterrey, Mexico, 1890-1940,” International Labor and Working-Class History 53 (Spring 1998): 115–36CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

75 , Katz, Secret War, 127–28Google Scholar;Zamora, Emilio, The World of the Mexican Worker in Texas (College Station, TX, 1993), 17Google Scholar.Womack, John Jr, Zapata and the Mexican Revolution (New York, 1968)Google Scholar;, Cockcroft, Intellectual Precursors, 91–116Google Scholar.

76 Miller, Richard Ulrich, “American Railroad Unions and the National Railways of Mexico: An Exercise in Nineteenth-Century Proletarian Manifest Destiny,” Labor History 15 (Spring 1974): 239–60CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

77 , Zamora, Mexican Worker, 110–23, 140Google Scholar.

78 Jensen, Vernon H., Heritage of Conflict: Labor Relations in the Nonferrous Metals Industry up to 1930 (Ithaca, NY, 1950), 365–68Google Scholar, 408-19; Huginnie, Andrea Yvette, “‘Strikitos’: Race, Class, and Work in the Arizona Copper Industry, 1870-1920” (PhD diss., Yale University, 1991)Google Scholar;, Johnson, Evolution in Texas, 71–143Google Scholar;Green, James R., Grass-Roots Socialism: Radical Movements in the Southwest, 1895-1943 (Baton Rouge, 1978)Google Scholar. Differing versions of the Plan de San Diego are presented in , Johnson, Revolution in Texas, 79–82Google Scholar, and Sandos, James A., Rebellion in the Borderlands: Anarchism and the Plan of San Diego, 1904-1923 (Norman, OK, 1992)Google Scholar. On Mexican fears that IWW activity in Baja California represented a Yankee annexationist threat, see Blaisdell, Lowell, Desert Revolution: Baja California, 1911 (Madison, 1962), 13–20Google Scholar.

79 , Cockcroft, Intellectual Precursors, 4, 91–119Google Scholar(the 1906 program of the PLM is reproduced on 239-45); Lazo, Begona Hernandez y, Huelga de Cananea (Mexico City, 1985)Google Scholar;Raat, W. Dirk, Revoltosos: Mexico's Rebels in the United States, 1903-1923 (College Station, TX, 1981), 65–91Google Scholar.

80 , Cockcroft, Intellectual Precursors, 127Google Scholar, 147; , Raat, Revoltosos, 41–52Google Scholar, 115-17, 126-27, 162-63; , Blaisdell, Desert Revolution, 169–72Google Scholar, 198-200; Turner, Ethel Duffy, Revolution in Baja California: Ricardo Flores Magdn's High Noon (Detroit, 1981)Google Scholar.

81 , Raat, Revoltosos, 162–63Google Scholar.

82 , Cockcroft, Inellectual Precursors, 18–42Google Scholar, 205-06, qt. on 181; , Katz, Secret War, 48Google Scholar;, Raat, Revoltosos, 212–14Google Scholar.

83 , Tannenbaum, Peace by Revolution, 123Google Scholar, 155-57; , Katz, Secret War, 273Google Scholar;, Cockcroft, Intellectual Precursors, 223–25Google Scholar. On Carranza's nationalism, tempered by fear of war with the United States, see , Katz, Secret War, 134–35Google Scholar.

84 Womak, John, Zapata and the Mexican Revolution (New York, 1970), 193–96Google Scholar, 200-02; , Cockcroft, Intellectual Precursors, 113–14Google Scholar.

85 , Katz, Secret War, 293–94Google Scholar;, Womack, Zapata, 288–300Google Scholar.

86 , Tannenbaum, Peace by Revolution, 232–42Google Scholar, 165-72.

87 Levenstein, Harvey A., Labor Organisations in the United States and Mexico: A History of Their Relations (Westport, CT, 1971), 11, 64–70Google Scholar;Lear, John, Workers, Neighbors, and Citizens: The Revolution in Mexico City (Lincoln, NE, 2001)Google Scholar.

88 , Katz, Secret War, 313–14Google Scholar;, Tannenbaum, Peace by Revolution, 137Google Scholar;, Zamora, World of the Mexican Worker, 173–75Google Scholar;Snow, Sinclair, Pan-American Federation of Labor (Durham, NC, 1964), 9–17Google Scholar; Gompers to M. Grant Hamilton, Sept. 27, 1915 in Gompers Papers, 9: 327; Excerpts from the Minutes of a Meeting of the Executive Council of the AFL in ibid., 9: 436-43.

89 Gompers to William McAdoo, July 2, 1915, in Gompers Papers, 9: 296-300; , Snow, Pan-American, 56–59Google Scholar.

90 Radosh, Ronald, American Labor and United States Foreign Policy (New York, 1969), 40–43Google Scholar, 58-71; , Snow, Pan-American, 11–18Google Scholar;DeLeon, Solon, ed., American Labor Who's Who (New York, 1925), 286, 310Google Scholar.

91 , Montgomery, Fall of the House of Labor, 356–59Google Scholar, 370-410; Smith, John S., “Organized Labor and the Government in the Wilson Era,” Labor History 3 (Fall 1962), 265–86CrossRefGoogle Scholar;McCartin, Joseph A., Labor's Great War: The Struggle for Industrial Democracy and the Origins of Modern American Industrial Relations, 1912-1921 (Chapel Hill, 1997)Google Scholar;Dubofsky, Melvyn, “Abortive Reform: The Wilson Administration and Organized Labor, 1913-1920” in Work, Community, and Power: The Experience of Labor in Europe and America, 1900-1925, ed. Cronin, James E. and Sirianni, Carmen (Philadelphia, 1983), 197–220Google Scholar;, Dubofsky, We Shall Be All, 369–75Google Scholar, 384-91.

92 Lore, Ludwig, “The IWW Trial,” Class Struggle, Sept-Oct. 1918, 381Google Scholar;, Dubofsky, We Shall Be All, 385–87Google Scholar; cf. Dawley, Alan, “Internazionalismo e antimperialismo al tempo dell'IWW” in Wobbly L'lndustrial Workers of the World e ilsuo tempo, ed. Cartosio, Bruno (Milan, 2007), 228Google Scholar, See also Lewis, Austin, “New Labor Movement in the West,” Class Struggle, Sept-Oct. 1917, 1–10Google Scholar;Nomura, Tatsuro, “Who Were the Wobblies? The Defendants of the Chicago IWW Trial of 1918: Collective Biographies,” journal of the Aichi Prefectural University (Twentieth Anniversary Number, 1986), 135–50Google Scholar(made available to me by Professor Ferdinando Fasce).

93 Montgomery, David, “Nationalism, American Patriotism, and Class Consciousness among Immigrant Workers in the United States in the Epoch of World War I” in “Struggle a Hard Battle”: Essays on Working-Class Immigrants, ed. Hoerder, Dirk (DeKalb, IL, 1986), 327–51Google Scholar;, Dubofsky, We Shall Be All, 382–97Google Scholar;Preston, William Jr, Aliens and Dissenters: Federal Suppression of Radicals, 1903-1933 (New York, 1963)Google Scholar; Office of Naval Intelligence, “Investigation of the Marine Transport Workers and the Alleged Threatened Combination between Them and the Bolsheviki and Sinn Feiners,” Dec. 23, 1918Google Scholar, Department of Labor, Chief Clerk's File 20/580, RG 174, National Archives.

94 San Francisco Chronicle, Nov. 19, 1915Google Scholar, in Gompers Papers, 9: 344-46, qt. on 346. It was the same convention that had adopted the resolution to build solidarity among unions of the Americas. See also, LaFeber, Walter, Inevitable 'Revolutions: The United States in Central America (New York, 1983), 53Google Scholar;Grubbs, Frank L. Jr, Struggle for Labor Loyalty: Gompers, the A.F. of L., and the Pacifists, 1917-1920 (Durham, NC, 1968)Google Scholar.

95 See , Radosh, Labor and Foreign Policy, 103–84Google Scholar;, Grubbs, Labor LoyaltyGoogle Scholar;, Gompers, Labor and the Common Welfare, 211–92Google Scholar.

96 Samuel Gompers to James Duncan, May 4, 1920, qtd. in , Smith, “Labor and Government,” 282Google Scholar. On the aspirations and strikes unleashed by the war, see , Montgomery, Fall of the House of Labor, 330–410Google Scholar.

97 , Montgomery, Fall of the House of Labor, 375–438Google Scholar, GE demands on 447; McKillen, Elizabeth, “Ethnicity, Class, and Wilsonian Internationalism Reconsidered: The Mexican-American and Irish-American Left and U.S. Foreign Relations, 1914-1922,” Diplomatic History 25 (Fall 2001): 553–87CrossRefGoogle Scholar, qt. on 578.

98 McKillen, Elizabeth, Chicago luibor and the Quest for a Democratic Diplomacy (Ithaca, NY, 1995), 51Google Scholar.

99 , Dawley, “Internazionalismo e antimperialismo,” 231Google Scholar. My translation from the Italian: “l'immediato primo dopoguerra merita di essere ricordato come il momento piu significativo deli'antimperialismo negli Stati Uniti dopo l'inizio del secolo.”

100 , McCartin, labor's Great War, 191–94Google Scholar.

101 Cross, Gary, A Quest for Time: The Reduction of Work in Britain and France, 1840-1940 (Berkeley, 1989), 129–49Google Scholar;MacShane, Denis, International Labour and the Origins of the Cold War (Oxford, 1992), 21–42Google Scholar;Tosstorff, Reiner, Profintern: Die Rote Gewerkschaftsinternationale, 1920-1937 (Paderborn, Germany, 2004), 130–64Google Scholar;Goethem, Geert van, “An International Experiment of Women Workers: The International Federation of Working Women, 1919-1924,” Revue Beige de Philologie et d'Histoire 84 (2006): 1025–47CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

102 , Simon, “Anarchism and Anarcho-Syndicalism in South America,” 38–59Google Scholar;, Snow, Pan-American, 28–29Google Scholar, 33-34; Spaulding, Hobart, Organised Labor in Latin America: Historical Case Studies of Urban Workers in Dependent Societies (New York, 1977), 59Google Scholar. Spaulding argues that the IWW in Chile “never built a mass base” and was overshadowed by the Catholic labor federation, which was captured in 1919 and in 1921 by socialists affiliated with the Communist International.

103 , Snow, Pan-American, 28–30Google Scholar, 45-46; , Radosh, Labor and Foreign Policy, 352Google Scholar;, Levenstein, Labor Organisations, 21–65Google Scholar, 73-74.

104 , Levenstein, Labor Organisations, 33, 68–71Google Scholar.

105 , Dubofsky, We Shall Be All, 382–91Google Scholar;Bercuson, David J., Fools and Wise Men: The Rise and Fall of the One Big Union (Toronto, 1978), 110–20Google Scholar;, Babcock, Gompers in Canada, 111–42Google Scholar.

106 , Snow, Pan-American, 9–30Google Scholar, 41-46, 53-55; , Zamora, World of the Mexican Worker, 17–18Google Scholar.

107 , Zamora, World of the Mexican Worker, 45Google Scholar.

108 Ibid., 61-63, 80-81, 110-13, 162-71; , Snow, Pan-American, 114–15Google Scholar;Andrews, Gregg, Shoulder to Shoulder? The American Federation of Labor, The United States, and the Mexican Revolution (Berkeley, 1991), 2–90Google Scholar, 118; Davis, Collin, Power at Odds: The 1922 National Railroad Shopmen's Strike (Urbana, 1997), 70, 147Google Scholar.

109 , Levenstein, Labor Organisations, 101–06Google Scholar, 129; New York Times, Oct. 16, 1925Google Scholar, qtd. in , Andrews, Shoulder to Shoulder, 4Google Scholar.

110 , Snow, Pan-American, 114–15Google Scholar;Cockcroft, James D., Mexico: Class Formation, Capital Accumulation, and the State (New York, 1983), 110–33Google Scholar;Friedrich, Paul, Agrarian Revolt in a Mexican Village (Chicago, 1977)Google Scholar;Olcott, Jocelyn, Revolutionary Women in Postrevolutionary Mexico (Durham, NC, 2005)CrossRefGoogle Scholar. After Gompers' death, discussions between the AFL and the CROM focused largely on limiting immigration from Mexico to the United States. They produced many AFL convention resolutions demanding the exclusion of immigrants but only ineffective verbal agreements between the two labor federations. , Levenstein, Labor Organisations, 117–23Google Scholar.