Hostname: page-component-77c89778f8-7drxs Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-07-23T10:32:25.379Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Basepaths to Empire: Race and the Spalding World Baseball Tour1

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  08 November 2010

Thomas W. Zeiler
Thomas W. Zeiler
Affiliation:
University of Colorado at Boulder
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Extract

During the Gilded Age, transnational American agents carried national values abroad, including defense of the “civilizing mission” of the white race toward people of color. This article explores race within the context of the Spalding world baseball tour of 1888-89, a transnational enterprise that marketed the national pastime abroad and, in so doing, indicated the latent, private power behind the official policies of the United States. A rather unusual segment of society to be considered for such scholarly treatment, professional baseball elites nonetheless helped generate a racist imperial ideology and thus added to the voices that set racial parameters for the American empire when it was attained in 1898. By tracing the racial attitudes of the baseball tourists, this article contributes to recent scholarly enterprises that examine foreign relations from a cultural perspective and integrate overlooked actors into the study of diplomatic history.

Type
Essays
Information
The Journal of the Gilded Age and Progressive Era , Volume 6 , Issue 2 , April 2007 , pp. 179 - 207
Copyright
Copyright © Society for Historians of the Gilded Age and Progressive Era 2007

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

2 Besides the firsthand accounts (cited in the notes below) by Harry Clay Palmer, Adrian Anson, James Ryan (in diary form), and the memoir, Spalding, Albert G., Baseball: America's National Game, 1839-1915, rev. ed. (San Francisco, 1991)Google Scholar, the world tour, or places at which it stopped, have been the subject of recent articles, book sections, or chapters. See Moore, Glenn, “The Great Baseball Tour of 1888-89: A Tale of Image-Making, Intrigue, and Labour Relations in the Gilded Age,” The International Journal of the History of Sport 11 (December 1994): 431–56CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Levine, Peter, A.G. Spalding and the Rise of Baseball: The Promise of American Sport (Oxford, 1985)Google Scholar; Levine, Peter, “Business, Missionary Motives Behind 1888-89 World Tour” SABR Baseball Research Journal 13 (1984): 60–63Google Scholar; Ardolino, Frank B., “Missionaries, Cartwright, and Spalding: The Development of Baseball in Nineteenth Century Hawaii,” Nine 10 (Spring 2002): 27–45CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Bartlett, Arthur, Baseball and Mr. Spalding: The History and Romance of Baseball (New York, 1951)Google Scholar; Carroll, Patrick, “Baseball in Graceland,” The SABR UK Examiner (May 2001): 5–7Google Scholar; Clark, Joe, The History of Australian Baseball: Time and Game (Lincoln, NE, 2003)Google Scholar; Salvatore, Bryan Di, A Clever Base-Ballist: The Life and Times of John Montgomery Ward (Baltimore, 1999)Google Scholar; Mitchell, Bruce, “Sporting Traditions: Two Tours and the Beginnings of Baseball in Australia,” Journal of the Australian Society for Sports History 7 (May 1991): 2–24.Google ScholarLamster, Mark, Spalding's World Tour: The Epic Adventure that Took Baseball Around the Globe—And Made It America's Game (New York, 2006)Google Scholar, is a sprightly, entertaining account of the figures and games of the tour.

3 SeeBederman, Gail, Manliness & Civilisation: A Cultural History of Gender and Race in the United States, 1880-1917 (Chicago, 1995).CrossRefGoogle Scholar For American diplomacy and international contacts in this period, see Plesur, Milton, America's Outward Thrust: Approaches to Foreign Affairs, 1865-1890 (DeKalb, IL, 1971)Google Scholar; Beisner, Robert L., From the Old Diplomacy to the New, 1865-1900, 2nd ed. (Arlington Heights, 1986)Google Scholar; LaFeber, Walter, The New Empire: An Interpretation of American Expansion, 1860-1898 (Ithaca, 1963)Google Scholar; LaFeber, , The American Search for Opportunity, 1865-1915, Vol. 2 of The Cambridge History of American Foreign Relations, ed. Cohen, Warren I. (New York, 1993)Google Scholar; Campbell, Charles S., The Transformation of American Foreign Relations, 1865-1900 (New York: 1976)Google Scholar; Dobson, John M., America's Ascent: The United States Becomes a Great Power, 1880-1914 (DeKalb, IL, 1978)Google Scholar; Graebner, Norman A., Foundations of American Foreign Policy: A Realist Appraisal from Franklin to McKinley: Essays (Wilmington, DE, 1985)Google Scholar; Stephanson, Anders, Manifest Destiny: American Expansionism and the Empire of Right (New York, 1995).Google Scholar For historiography of the era and references, see Crapol, Edward P., “Coming to Terms with Empire: The Historiography of Late-Nineteenth-Century American Foreign Relations,” Diplomatic History 16 (Fall 1992): 573–97CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Fry, Joseph A., “From Open Door to World Systems: Economic Interpretations of Late-Nineteenth-Century American Foreign Relations,” Pacific Historical Review 65 (May 1996): 277–303.CrossRefGoogle Scholar For the frontier thesis, see Wrobel, David M., The End of American Exceptionalism: Frontier Anxiety from the Old West to the New Deal (Lawrence, 1993)Google Scholar; Nugent, Walter, “Frontiers and Empires in the Late Nineteenth Century,” Western Historical Quarterly 20 (Winter 1989): 393–408CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

4 For Gilded Age race and diplomacy, see Kramer, Paul A., “Empires, Exceptions, and Anglo-Saxons: Race and Rule Between the British and United States Empires, 1880-1910” Journal of American History 88 (Winter 2002): 1315–53CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Weston, Rubin Francis, Racism in U.S. Imperialism: The Influence of Racial Assumptions on American Foreign Policy, 1893—1946 (Columbia, SC, 1972)Google Scholar; DeConde, Alexander, Ethnicity, Race, and American Foreign Policy: A History (Boston, 1992)Google Scholar; Krenn, Michael L., Race and U.S. Foreign Policy in the Ages of Territorial and Market Expansion, 1840-1900. Vol. 2 of Race and U.S. Foreign Policy from the Colonial Period to the Present: A Collection of Essays (New York, 1998)Google Scholar; Smith, Tony, Foreign Attachments: The Power of Ethnic Groups in the Making of American Foreign Policy (Cambridge, MA, 2000)Google Scholar; Gyory, Andrew, Closing the Gate: Race, Politics, and the Chinese Exclusion Act (Chapel Hill, 1998)Google Scholar; Chang, Gordon H., “Whose ‘Barbarism’? Whose ‘Treachery’? Race and Civilization in the Unknown United States-Korea War of 187'1,” Journal of American History 89 (March 2003): 1331–65.CrossRefGoogle Scholar For a recent survey of the literature on race and imperialism, see Love, Eric T., Race over Empire: Racism and U.S. Imperialism, 1865-1900 (Chapel Hill, 2004)Google Scholar.

5 Jacobson, Matthew Frye, Barbarian Virtues: The United States Encounters Foreign Peoples at Home and Abroad, 1876-1917 (New York, 2000).Google Scholar See also Chin, Carol C., “Beneficent Imperialists: American Women Missionaries in China at the Turn of the Twentieth Century,” Diplomatic History 27 (June 2003): 327–52CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Guterl, Matthew Pratt, “The New Race Consciousness: Race, Nation, and Empire in American Culture, 1910-1925,” Journal of World History 10 (Fall 1999): 307–52CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

6 Ricard, Serge and Christol, Hélène, eds., Anglo-Saxonism in U.S. Foreign Policy: The Diplomacy of Imperialism, 1899-1919 (Aix-en-Provence, 1991).Google Scholar For negative stereotyping, see Hunt, Michael, Ideology and U.S. Foreign Policy (New Haven, 1987)Google Scholar.

7 For a possible emerging trend in historical writing that links sports to diplomacy and international topics, see Guthrie-Shimizu, Sayuri, “For Love of the Game: Baseball in Early U.S.-Japanese Encounters and the Rise of a Transnational Sporting Fraternity,” Diplomatic History 28 (Nov. 2004): 637–62CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Perez, Louis A. Jr, “Between Baseball and Bullfighting: The Quest for Nationality in Cuba, 1868-1898,” The Journal of American History 81 (Sept. 1994): 493–517CrossRefGoogle Scholar; LaFeber, Walter, Michael Jordan and the New Global Capitalism (New York, 1999)Google Scholar; Keys, Barbara, “The Internationalization of Sport, 1890-1939,” in The Cultural Turn: Essays in the History of U.S. Foreign Relations, ed. Ninkovich, Frank A. and Bu, Liping (Chicago, 2001), 201–19Google Scholar.

8 For early globalization, in which the British dominated the Atlantic economy by free trade, open capital markets, the gold standard, and dominance of shipping, sea lanes, and communications, see O'Rourke, Kevin and Williamson, Jeffrey G., Globalisation and History: The Evolution of a Nineteenth-Century Atlantic Economy (Cambridge, MA, 1999)Google Scholar; Eckes, Alfred E. Jr, and Zeiler, Thomas W., Globalisation and the American Century (New York, 2003), 9–37Google Scholar; and Davis, Lance E. and Gallman, Robert E., Evolving Financial Markets and International Capital Flows: Britain, the Americas, and Australia, 1865-1914 (New York, 2001).CrossRefGoogle Scholar For a long view of globalization's vast scope, see Hopkins, A.G., ed., Globalisation in World History (New York, 2002)Google Scholar.

9 For the export of U.S. culture in the form of entertainment, see Blair, John G., “First Steps Toward Globalization: Nineteenth-Century Exports of American Entertainment Forms” in “Here, There, and Everywhere”: The Foreign Politics of American Popular Culture, ed. Wagnleitner, Reinhold and May, Elaine Tyler (Hanover, NH, 2000)Google Scholar.

10 For tourism, see Endy, Christopher, “Travel and World Power: Americans in Europe, 1890-1917,” Diplomatic History 22 (Fall 1998): 565–94Google Scholar; Engerman, David, “Research Agenda for the History of Tourism: Towards and International Social History,” American Studies International 32 (Oct. 1994): 3–29Google Scholar; Feifer, Maxine, Tourism in History: From Imperial Rome to the Present (New York, 1985)Google Scholar; Leed, Eric J., The Mind of the Traveler: From Gilgamesh to Global Tourism (New York, 1991)Google Scholar; Dulles, Foster Rhea, Americans Abroad: Two Centuries of European Travel (Ann Arbor, 1964), 86–96CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Stowe, William W., Going Abroad: European Travel in Nineteenth-Century American Culture (Princeton, 1994)Google Scholar; Marks, Jason, Around the World in 72 Days (New York, 1999)Google Scholar.

11 light, Jonathan Fraser, The Cultural Encyclopedia of Baseball (Jefferson, NC, 1997), 373–74, 486Google Scholar; Zang, David W., Fleet Walker's Divided Heart (Lincoln, NE, 1995), 55–56Google Scholar; Peterson, Robert, Only the Ball Was White (New York, 1970), 21–46.Google Scholar Well after he had retired from baseball, Fleet Walker, one of the last black major leaguers until after World War II, wrote a booklet that linked race and empire. This 1908 tract, entitled Our Home Colony—A Treatise on the Past, Present and Future of the Negro Race in America, argued that white Americans would not give blacks full equality during the current “colonial period” in African-American development. He suggested blacks seek liberation by emigrating to Africa.

12 For a contemporary example of discrimination, this one in theater seating, see Dale, Elizabeth, “‘Social Equality Does Not Exist among Themselves, nor among Us’: Baylies vs. Curry and Civil Rights in Chicago, 1888,” American Historical Review 102 (April 1997): 311–39.CrossRefGoogle Scholar For the 1888 refusal of white champion John Sullivan to fight black Peter Jackson, see Wiggins, David K., “Peter Jackson and the Elusive Heavyweight Championship: A Black Athlete's Struggle Against the Late Nineteenth-Century Color Line,” Journal of Sport History 12 (Spring 1985): 143–68Google Scholar.

13 Research on nineteenth-century mascots is slim, but for recent critiques of mascots and ethnicity, see Spindel, Carol, Dancing at Halftime: Sports and Controversy over American Indian Mascots (New York, 2000)Google Scholar; King, C. Richard, Springwood, Charles Fruehling, and Deloria, Vine Jr, Team Spirits: The Native American Mascots Controversy (Lincoln, NE, 2001)Google Scholar.

14 Palmer, Harry Clay, Athletic Sports in America, England, and Australia (Philadelphia, 1889), 160, 171Google Scholar; Anson, Adrian C., A Ball-Player's Career (Chicago, 1900), 149Google Scholar.

15 Brinton, Daniel G., Races and Peoples: Lectures on the Science of Ethnography (New York, 1890)Google Scholar, quoted in Jacobson, , Barbarian Virtues, 139.Google Scholar See also Rydell, Robert W., All the World's a Fair: Visions of Empire at American International Expositions, 1876-1916 (Chicago, 1984), 25–30Google Scholar.

16 Palmer, , Athletic Sports, 194–96Google Scholar; Anson, , A Ball-Player's Career, 166Google Scholar.

17 Schaller, Michael, The United States and China in the Twentieth Century (New York, 1979), 19–20.Google Scholar See also Harris, Paul, “Cultural Imperialism and American Protestant Missionaries: Collaboration and Dependency in Mid-Nineteenth Century China,” Pacific Historical Review 60 (Summer 1991): 309–38CrossRefGoogle Scholar; McClain, Charles J., In Search of Equality: The Chinese Struggle against Discrimination in Nineteenth-Century America (Berkeley, 1994)Google Scholar; Chin, , “Beneficent Imperialists”Google Scholar; Aubertin, John James, A Tight With Distances: The States, Hawaiian Islands, Canada, British Columbia, Cuba and the Bahamas (London, 1888), 161Google Scholar, in American Memory website: American Notes: Travels in America, 1750-1920, Library of Congress, <http://rs6.loc.gov/ammem/lhtnhtml/lhtnhome.html>. Daniels, Roger, “Asian Americans: The Transformation of a Pariah Minority,” Amerikastudien/American Studies 40 (Summer 1995): 469–83Google Scholar; Shah, Nayan, Contagious Divide: Epidemics and Race in San Frandsco's Chinatown (Berkeley, 2001)Google Scholar.

18 Palmer, , Athletic Sports, 196–97Google Scholar; Anson, , A Ball-Player's Career, 167–68Google Scholar.

19 LaFeber, Walter, The Clash: U.S.-Japanese Relations Throughout History (New York, 1997), 55Google Scholar.

20 James Ryan diary, National Baseball Hall of Fame Library, Cooperstown, New York (hereafter NBHOFL). See also Plesur, , America's Outward Thrust, 76Google Scholar; LaFeber, , The New Empire, 53–54Google Scholar; Mark, Shelley A. and Adler, Jacob, “Claus Spreckels in Hawaii: Impact of a Mainland Interloper on Development of Hawaiian Sugar Industry,” Explorations in Entrepreneurial History 10 (Oct. 1957): 22–32Google Scholar; “A Kanaka Royal Family,” All The Year Round, April 9, 1887, 278.Google Scholar Incidentally, baseball had also staked its claim, for the so-called Father of Baseball, Alexander Joy Cartwright, had settled in Honolulu in 1849 after abandoning the California gold rush to recover from illness. Cartwright promoted the game there, but also managed the finances of the royal family by drawing on his expertise as a former bank clerk until his death in 1892. See Ardolino, , “Missionaries, Cartwright, and Spalding,” 27–45Google Scholar; Light, , The Cultural Encyclopedia of Baseball, 136–38Google Scholar.

21 Anson, , A Ball-Player's Career, 179Google Scholar; Palmer, , Athletic Sports, 214–15Google Scholar; “David Kalakaua,” <http://www.des-chico.com/~star/Hawaii/h_monarc.html>; James, Wilma, “Hawaii's Last King,” Pacific Historian 24 (Summer 1980): 312–15Google Scholar; Greer, Richard A., “The Royal Tourist—Kalakua's Letters Home from Tokio to London,” Hawaiian Journal of History 5 (1971): 75–109Google Scholar; Schweizer, Niklaus R., “King Kalakau: An International Perspective,” Hawaiian Journal of History 25 (1991): 103–20Google Scholar; Karpiel, Frank J. Jr, “Mystic Ties of Brotherhood: Freemasonry, Ritual, and Hawaiian Royalty in the Nineteenth Century,” Pacific Historical Review 69 (Aug. 2000): 357, 381-82, 385, 392.CrossRefGoogle Scholar See also “Our San Francisco Letter,” Pacific Commercial Advertiser (Nov. 26, 1888): 1Google Scholar; Spalding, , Baseball, 158–159Google Scholar; “At Honolulu,” Sporting Life (Dec. 26, 1888): 4Google Scholar; “Received By the King”, newsclipping, Albert G. Spalding Scrapbook, vol. 8, Society of American Baseball Researchers (SABR) Lending Library, Cleveland, Ohio (hereafter SABRLL). See also Light, , The Cultural Encylopedia of Baseball, 709Google Scholar, for the general ban throughout the nineteenth century and into the 1920s on baseball played on the “Continental Sabbath.” The National League outlawed Sunday play in 1880, though reinstated it when, in 1892, it absorbed the rival American Association, known fondly as the “Beer and Whiskey League,” which had no such ban.

22 Anson, , A Ball-Player's Career, 180Google Scholar; Tener, John, “On the Alameda,” correspondence to the Pittsburgh Chronicle Telegraph, Dec. 1, 1888Google Scholar, John K. Tener File, Biographical File, NBHOFL. See also Aubertin, , A Fight with Distances, 194Google Scholar.

23 Tener, , “On the Alameda,” correspondence to the Pittsburgh Chronicle Telegraph, Dec. 1, 1888Google Scholar, Tener File, NBHOF; Palmer, , Athletic Sports, 223–24.Google Scholar See also Ryan diary, Nov. 25, 1888, 31, NBHOFL.

24 Palmer, , Athletic Sports, 224–25Google Scholar; Anson, , A Ball-Player's Career, 184Google Scholar.

25 Quoted in Love, , Race over Empire, 12–23.Google Scholar For Hawaii, see Okihiro, Gary Y., Cane Fires: The Anti-Japanese Movement in Hawaii, 1865-1945 (Philadelphia, 1991)Google Scholar; Calhoun, Charles W., “Morality and Spite: Walter Q. Gresham and U.S. Relations with Hawaii,” Pacific Historical Review 52 (Aug. 1983): 292–311.CrossRefGoogle ScholarTate, Merze, The United States and the Hawaiian Kingdom: A Political History, (New Haven, 1965).Google ScholarDaws, Gavan, Shoal of Time: A History of the Hawaiian Islands, (1968, Honolulu, 1982)Google Scholar; Pratt, Julius W, Expansionists of 1898: The Acquisition of Hawaii and the Spanish Islands (Baltimore, 1936)Google Scholar; Russ, William Adam, The Hawaiian Republic, 1894-98, and Its Struggle to Win Annexation (Selinsgrove, PA, 1961)Google Scholar.

26 Anson, , A Ball-Player's Career, 189Google Scholar; Palmer, , Athletic Sports, 234.Google Scholar See also DeConde, , Ethnicity, 149Google Scholar.

27 Trotter, Coutts, “Among the Islands of the South Pacific: Tonga and Samoa,” Littell's Living Age, April-June, 1888, 797Google Scholar; Whitaker, Hervey W., “Samoa: The Isles of the Navigators,” The Century Magazine, May 1889, 17–25Google Scholar.

28 “Auckland, N.S.,” Dec. 9, 1888Google Scholar, newspaper clipping, Spalding Scrapbooks, vol. 8, SABR LL. See also Palmer, , Athletic Sports, 235–36Google Scholar.

29 Mitchell, , “Sporting Traditions,” 4Google Scholar.

30 “Banquet to Consul Griffin,” undated, M173 (microfilm), Despatches from U.S. Consuls in Sydney, Australia, 1836-1906, Reel 13, Record Group 59, Records of the Department of State, National Archives II, College Park, Maryland.

31 Levine, , A.G. Spalding, 103.Google Scholar See also Palmer, , Athletic Sports, 261Google Scholar.

32 Quoted in Joe Clark, excerpts from Time and Game: The History of Australian Baseball, in author's possession. See also Hale, , “Impressions of Australia,” 846–48Google Scholar; Salvatore, Di, A Clever Base-Ballist, 233–34Google Scholar; Stevens, David, Baseball's Radical for All Seasons: A Biography of John Montgomery Ward (Lanham, MD, 1998), 75Google Scholar; “Baseball,” Adelaide Observer, Jan. 5, 1889, 19Google Scholar.

33 Palmer, , Athletic Sports, 275.Google Scholar See also Kramer, Paul A., “Empires, Exceptions, and Anglo-Saxons”Google Scholar; Tatz, Collin, “Racism and Sport in Australia,” Race & Class 36 (April 1995): 43–54CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

34 “Results of the Spalding Tour,” cartoon, Spalding Scrapbooks, vol. 8, SABR LL. See also Wonham, Henry B., “‘I Want a Real Coon’: Mark Twain and Late-Nineteenth Century Caricature,” American Literature 72 (Winter 2000): 117–52CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

35 Anson, , A Ball-Player's Career, 213–14Google Scholar.

36 Palmer, , Athletic Sports, 289Google Scholar; Ryan diary, Jan. 18, 1889, 50.

37 Palmer, , Athletic Sports, 283, 285.Google Scholar See also Ryan diary, Jan. 11, 13, 17, 22, 1889, 48-50.

38 Palmer, , Athletic Sports, 286, 291-92Google Scholar; Anson, , A Ball-Player's Career, 219–21Google Scholar.

39 Ryan diary, Jan. 22, 1889, 50. See also Salvatore, Di, A Clever Base-Ballist, 238Google Scholar; “The Grand Laugh,” Sporting News, Feb. 2, 1889, 3Google Scholar.

40 Sherman, Richard Morey, “American Contacts with Ceylon in the 19th Century: An Introduction to Their Impact,” Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Sri Lanka 35 (1990-1991): 1–8Google Scholar; Rajapakse, Reginald Lakshman, “Christian Missions, Theosophy, and Trade: A History of American Relations with Ceylon, 1815-1915” (PhD diss., University of Pennsylvania, 1974)Google Scholar.

41 Palmer, , Athletic Sports, 295–303.Google Scholar See also Levine, , A.G. Spalding, 104Google Scholar; Burrows, S.M., “A Modern Pilgrimage,” Macmillan's Magazine 58 (1888?): 467Google Scholar.

42 Palmer, , Athletics Sports, 303–04.Google Scholar See also “Spalding's Ball Players,” newsclipping, Spalding Scrapbooks, vol. 8, SABR LL; “Lawn Tennis in Ceylon,” The Overland Ceylon Observer, Jan. 24, 1889, p. 89Google Scholar; “The American Base-Bailers in Colombo,” Ceylon Independent, Jan. 28, 1889, p. 1Google Scholar.

43 Tener to Ll'ee Bee, Feb. 6, 1889, Tener Files, NBHOFL.

44 Salvatore, Di, A Clever Base-Ballist, 239Google Scholar.

45 Palmer, , Athletic Sports, 304–12Google Scholar; Ryan diary, Feb. 2 and 6, 1889, 56-57; Tener to Maud, Feb. 6, 1889, Tener Files, NBHOFL.

46 Palmer, , Athletic Sports, 313–16Google Scholar; Anson, , A Ball-Player's Career, 232Google Scholar.

47 Anson, , A Ball-Player's Career, 235Google Scholar; Palmer, , Athletic Sports, 318.Google Scholar See also Hopkins, A.G., “The Victorians and Africa: A Reconsideration of the Occupation of Egypt, 1882,” Journal of African History 27 (Spring 1986): 363–91CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

48 See Obeidat, Marwan A., “Lured by the Exotic Levant: The Muslim East to the American Traveller of the Nineteenth Century,” Islamic Quarterly 31 (Summer 1987): 167–93Google Scholar; Hollenbach, John W., “The Image of the Arab in Nineteenth-Century English and American Literature,” Muslim World 62 (Summer 1972): 195–208CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

49 “Changing Cairo,” Littell's Living Age, Jan.-March, 1889, 446–47Google Scholar; Carpenter, Frank, “Cairo Under the Khedive,” The Cosmopolitan, Oct. 1889, 48, 580–82Google Scholar; Ferguson, , Empire, 233Google Scholar.

50 Quoted in Salvatore, Di, A Clever Base-Ballist, 240.Google Scholar See also Palmer, , Athletic Sports, 323–33Google Scholar.

51 Palmer, Athletic Sports, 333Google Scholar; Carpenter, , “Cairo Under the Khedive,” 582Google Scholar; Salvatore, Di, A Clever Base-Ballist, 239–40Google Scholar; “Baseball: The Great Trip,” Sporting Life, Feb. 20, 1889, 4Google Scholar.

52 Palmer, Athletic Sports, 336–40Google Scholar; Tener to Maud, Feb. 6, 1889, Tener file, NBHOF.

53 Quoted inLevine, , A.G. Spalding, 99Google Scholar.

54 It is, actually, a dubious claim to divide the countries represented in the World Baseball Classic as white and nations of color. Included are the U.S., Australia, Italy, Canada, and the Netherlands, five “white” nations which carried several players of color on their roster. For instance, Andruw Jones, from Curacao, played for the Netherlands. The nations of color that took part were Japan, Korea, Chinese Taipei, China, Puerto Rico, Cuba, Panama, Venezuela, Mexico, South Africa, and the Dominican Republic.