^{Page 567 note 1} Kasfir, Nelson, ‘Introduction: relating state to class in Africa’, in Journal of Commonwealth and Comparative Politics (London), XXI, 3, 1983, p. 2.Google Scholar This issue was also published as Kasfir, Nelson (ed.), State and Class in Africa (London, 1984).Google Scholar

^{Page 568 note 1} Mosca, Gactano, The Ruling Class: elementi di scienza politica (New York, 1936 edn.), pp. 50–69.Google Scholar

^{Page 568 note 2} Sklar, Richard L., Nigerian Political Parties (Princeton, 1963), pp. 480–1.Google Scholar

^{Page 568 note 3} Sklar, Richard L., ‘Contradictions in the Nigerian Political System’, in The Journal of Modern African Studies (Cambridge), III, 2, 1965, pp. 203–4.Google Scholar

^{Page 568 note 4} To overcome this confusion and to emphasise the rôle of the private and public business élite, Sklar adopted the term ‘managerial bourgeoisie’, which encompasses as well other upper-level bureaucrats, members of the learned professions, and high government officials. See Sklar, Richard L., ‘Postimpenalism: a class analysis of multinational corporate expansion’, in Comparative Politics (New York), IX, I, 19, pp. 81 and 91 fn.51. This term, like Irving L. Markovitz's ‘organizational bourgeoisie’, is more broadly conceived than ‘bureaucratic’ or ‘state’ bourgeoisie, in that it seeks ‘to comprehend the dominant class as a whole’ (to quote Sklar's later analysis), and is more precise than Peter Ekeh's simple designation of these groups as ‘bourgeois’, which ‘connotes the newness of a privileged class which may yield much power but have little political acceptance’. Precisely because this class forms and consolidates its social dominance through political power, I favour the term ‘political class’. It has the advantage of avoiding the implication of a materially productive class that is suggested by the term ‘bourgeois’, a consideration that led Thomas Callaghy to describe the Zaïrian ruling class as a ‘political aristocracy’. This term, however, would also seem to be misleading, in that it implies familial inheritance as the primary mechanism of recruitment into the dominant class.Google Scholar See Markovitz, Irving Leonard, Power and Class in Africa (Englewood Cliffs, 1977), pp. 198–229;Google ScholarSklar, Richard L., ‘The Nature of Class Domination in Africa’, in The Journal of Modern African Studies, XVII, 4, 12 1979, pp. 544–7;Google ScholarEkeh, Peter, ‘Colonialism and the Two Publics in Africa: a theoretical statement’, in Comparative Studies in Society and History (Cambridge), XVII, I, 1975, p. 93;Google Scholar and Callaghy, Thomas, The State–Society Struggle: Zaire in comparative perspective (New York, 1984), pp. 185–6.Google Scholar

^{Page 569 note 1} Sklar, , ‘The Nature of Class Domination in Africa’, pp. 536–7.Google Scholar

^{Page 570 note 1} Kasfir, loc. cit. p. 5.

^{Page 570 note 2} Cf.Miliband, Ralph, The State in Capitalist Society (New York, 1969),Google Scholar and Domhoff, G. William, Who Rules America Now? (Englewood Cliffs, 1983).Google Scholar

^{Page 570 note 3} Sklar, , ‘Contradictions in the Nigerian Political System’, p. 204.Google Scholar

^{Page 570 note 4} Duignan, Peter, ‘Introduction’, in Duignan, and Jackson, Robert H. (eds.), Politics and Government in African States, 1960–85 (London and Stanford, 1986), pp. 18–19.Google Scholar

^{Page 570 note 5} I am grateful to Lewis H. Gann for his comments on this and related points.

^{Page 571 note 1} Young, Crawford, ‘Patterns of Social Conflict: State, class and ethnicity’, in Daedalus (Cambridge, Mass.), CXI, 2, 1982, pp. 75–6.Google Scholar

^{Page 571 note 2} Ibid. p. 78.

^{Page 571 note 3} Bates, Robert H., Markets and States in Tropical Africa (Berkeley, 1981), pp. 12–13;Google ScholarAke, Claude, A Political Economy of Africa (Harlow, 1981), pp. 63–5;Google Scholar and Ogbeide, Uyi-Ekpen, ‘The Expansion of the State and Ethnic Mobilization: the Nigerian experience’, Ph.D. dissertation, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee, 1985, pp. 37–40.Google Scholar

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^{Page 572 note 2} Jackson, Robert H., ‘Conclusion’, in Duignan and Jackson (eds.), op. cit. p. 411.Google Scholar

^{Page 572 note 3} Duignan, loc. cit. p. 11.

^{Page 572 note 4} Jackson, loc. cit. p. 411.

^{Page 572 note 5} Chazan, loc. cit. p. 129.

^{Page 572 note 6} Young, Crawford, Ideology and Development in Africa (New Haven, 1982), p. 189.Google Scholar

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^{Page 573 note 1} Abernethy, David B., ‘Bureaucratic Growth and Economic Decline in Sub-Saharan Africa’, 26th Annual Meeting of the African Studies Association, Boston, 1983, an updated version of which is to be published as ‘Bureaucratic Growth and Economic Stagnation in Sub-Saharan Africa’, in Commins, Stephen K. (ed.), Africa's Development Challenges and the World Bank (Boulder, 1988).Google Scholar

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^{Page 574 note 1} Diamond, Larry, Class, Ethnicity and Democracy in Nigeria: the failure of the First Republic (London, 1988), pp. 178–9.Google Scholar

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^{Page 574 note 3} Joseph, , ‘Class, State and Prebendal Politics in Nigeria’, p. 23.Google Scholar

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^{Page 575 note 1} Abernethy, , ‘Bureaucratic Growth and Economic Decline’, p. 14.Google Scholar

^{Page 575 note 2} Ibid. Table 5.

^{Page 575 note 3} Ibid. Table 4.

^{Page 576 note 1} Ibid. p. 17.

^{Page 576 note 2} Abernethy, David B., The Political Dilemma of Popular Education (Stanford, 1969), p. 243.Google Scholar

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^{Page 576 note 5} Ibid. pp. 23–5.

^{Page 576 note 6} Smythe, Hugh H. and Smythe, Mabel M., The New Nigerian Elite (Stanford, 1960), p. 69.Google Scholar

^{Page 577 note 1} Ibid. p. 132.

^{Page 577 note 2} Markovitz, op. cit. pp. 205–6.

^{Page 577 note 3} Kasfir, loc. cit. p. 8.

^{Page 577 note 4} Waterbury, John, ‘Endemic and Planned Corruption in a Monarchical Regime’, in World Politics (Princeton), XXV, 4, 1973, p. 543.Google Scholar

^{Page 577 note 5} Diamond, Larry, ‘Class, Ethnicity and the Democratic State: Nigeria, 1950–66’, in Comparative Studies in Society and History, XXV, 3, 1983, p. 462.Google Scholar

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^{Page 578 note 2} Ibid. p. 55.

^{Page 578 note 3} Kasfir, loc. cit. p. 12.

^{Page 578 note 4} Nye, Joseph S., ‘Corruption and Political Development: a cost-benefit analysis’, in Heidenheimer, Arnold J. (ed.), Political Corruption: readings in comparative analysis (New Brunswick, 1970), pp. 566–7.Google Scholar

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^{Page 579 note 2} Callaghy, op. cit. pp. 189–90.

^{Page 579 note 3} Diamond, Larry, ‘The Social Foundations of Democracy: the case of Nigeria’, Ph.D. dissertation, Stanford University, 1980, pp. 556–82.Google Scholar

^{Page 580 note 1} Schatz, Sayre P., Nigerian Capitalism (Berkeley, 1977), pp. 190–5, 208–9, 231–2, and 244–5;Google Scholar and Helleiner, Gerald K., ‘The Eastern Nigeria Development Corporation: a study in resources and uses of public development funds, 1949–62’, in Nigerian Journal of Economic and Social Studies (Ibadan), VI, I, 1964, pp. 98–123.Google Scholar

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^{Page 581 note 1} Sfetzel, Morris, ‘Political Graft and the Spoils System in Zambia – the State as a Resource in Itself’, in Review of African Political Economy (Sheffield), 24, 1982, pp. 4–21.Google Scholar

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^{Page 581 note 3} For example, Jackson, Robert H. and Rosberg, Carl G., Personal Rule in Black Africa: prince, autocrat, prophet, tyrant (Berkeley, 1982); Joseph, ‘Class, State and Prebendal Politics in Nigeria’; Kasfir, loc. cit.; Callaghy, op. Cit.Google Scholar and ‘External Actors and the Relative Autonomy of the Political Aristocracy in Zaire’, in The Journal of Commonwealth and Comparative Politics, XXI, 3, 1983, pp. 61–83.Google Scholar

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^{Page 582 note 2} Ibid. p. 42.

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^{Page 582 note 5} Joseph, , ‘Class, State and Prebendal Politics in Nigeria’, pp. 30–1; see also Waterbury, loc. cit. p. 538.Google Scholar

^{Page 583 note 1} Callaghy, op. cit. and ‘Politics and Vision in Africa: the interplay of domination, equality and liberty’, in Chabal, Patrick (ed.), Political Domination in Africa: reflections on the limits of power (Cambridge, 1986), pp. 31–6.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

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^{Page 583 note 3} Holm, John D., ‘Botswana: a paternalistic democracy’, in Diamond, Linz, and Lipset (eds.), op. cit.Google Scholar

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^{Page 584 note 1} LeVine, op. cit. pp. 17–18.

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^{Page 584 note 3} Joseph, , ‘Class, State and Prebendal Politics in Nigeria’, p. 24.Google Scholar

^{Page 585 note 1} Sfetzel, , loc. cit.; and Jackson and Rosberg, op. cit. p. 46.Google Scholar See also Huntington, Samuel P., Political Order in Changing Societies (New Haven, 1968), p. 61; Scott, op. cit. p. 14;Google Scholar and Eker, Varda, ‘On the Origins of Corruption: irregular incentives in Nigeria’, in The Journal of Modern African Studies, XIX, 1, 03 1981, p. 174.Google Scholar

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