Hostname: page-component-8448b6f56d-42gr6 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-19T15:00:53.228Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Treating Pain in Sickle Cell Disease with Opioids: Clinical Advances, Ethical Pitfalls

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  01 January 2021

Wally R. Smith
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Extract

Sickle cell disease (SCD) is an autosomal recessive hemoglobinopathy found mainly in populations of African and Mediterranean descent, including approximately 100,000 Americans. It is also very common in Spanish-speaking regions of Central America, South America, and parts of the Caribbean, in Saudi Arabia, and in India and Sri Lanka. The disorder is characterized most commonly by lifelong recurrent unpredictable vaso-occlusive pain that may be disabling, and by chronic tissue damage and organ dysfunction. There are several genotypes of the disease. Although SCD pain frequency generally varies between genotypes, it also varies between subjects even within genotype. It may worsen from childhood to adulthood. It may vary by gender. Its location, timing, and severity may be unpredictable.

Until recently, pain in SCD had been characterized as episodes that were acute, periodic, and relatively rare. Crises were viewed as usually associated with hospitalization. Many patients utilized hospital or emergency care for pain once per year or less, so painful episodes in SCD were called vaso-occlusive “crises.”

Type
Symposium
Information
Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics , Volume 42 , Issue 2 , Summer 2014 , pp. 139 - 146
Copyright
Copyright © American Society of Law, Medicine and Ethics 2014

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Hassell, K. L., “Population Estimates of Sickle Cell Disease in the U.S.,” American Journal of Preventative Medicine 38, no. 4, Supp. (2010): S512–S521.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sickle-Cell Anaemia: Report by the Secretariat, World Health Organization Fifty-Ninth World Health Assembly a59/9, Provisional Agenda Item 11.4 (April 24, 2006). <https://apps.who.int/gb/ebwha/pdf_files/WHA59/A59_9-en.pdf>(last visited May 22, 2013).(last+visited+May+22,+2013).>Google Scholar
Steinberg, M. H., “Management of Sickle Cell Disease,” New England Journal of Medicine 340 (1999): 1021–1030.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dampier, C. Ely, B. Brodecki, D. O'Neal, P., “Characteristics of Pain Managed at Home in Children and Adolescents with Sickle Cell Disease by Using Diary Self-Reports,” Journal of Pain 3, no. 6 (2002): 461–470;Brousseau, D. C. Owens, P. L. Mosso, A. L. Panepinto, J. A. Steiner, C. A., “Acute Care Utilization and Rehospitalizations for Sickle Cell Disease,” JAMA 303, no. 13 (2010): 1288–1294.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McClish, D. K. Levenson, J. L. Penberthy, L. T. Roseff, S. D. Bovbjerg, V. E. Roberts, J. D. Aisiku, I. P. Smith, W. R., “Gender Differences in Pain and Health Care Utilization for Adult Sickle Cell Patients: The PiSCES Project,” Journal of Women's Health (Larchmt) 15, no. 2 (2006): 146–154.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McClish, D. K. Smith, W. R. Dahman, B. A. Levenson, J. L. Roberts, J. D. Penberthy, L. T. Aisiku, I. P. Roseff, S. D. Bovbjerg, V. E., “Pain Site Frequency and Location in Sickle Cell Disease: The PiSCES Project,” Pain 145, nos. 1–2 (2009): 246–251.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Platt, O. S. Thorington, B. D. Brambilla, D. J. Milner, P. F. Rosse, W. F. Vichinsky, E. Kinney, T. R., “Pain in SCD: Rates and Risk Factors,” New England Journal of Medicine 325, no. 1 (1991): 11–16.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dampier, C. Ely, E. Brodecki, D. O'Neal, P., “Home Management of Pain in Sickle Cell Disease: A Daily Diary Study in Children and Adolescents,” Journal of Pediatric Hematology/Oncology 24, no. 8 (2002): 643–647.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smith, W. R. Bovbjerg, V. E. Penberthy, L. T. McClish, D. K. Levenson, J. L. Roberts, J. D. Gil, K. Roseff, S. D. Aisiku, I. P., “Understanding Pain and Improving Management of Sickle Cell Disease: The PiSCES Study,” Journal of the National Medical Association 97, no. 2 (2005): 183–193.Google Scholar
Smith, W. R. McClish, D. K. Penberthy, L. T. Bovbjerg, V. E. Dahman, B. A. Roberts, J. D. Aisiku, I. P. Levenson, J. L. Roseff, S. D., “Daily Assessment of Pain in Adults with Sickle Cell Disease,” Annals of Internal Medicine 148, no. 2 (2008): 94–101.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ballas, S. K., “Defining the Phenotypes of Sickle Cell Disease,” Hemoglobin 35, no. 5–6 (2011): 511–519.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dampier, C. Setty, B. N. Eggleston, B. Brodecki, D. O'neal, P. Stuart, M., “Vaso-occlusion in Children with Sickle Cell Disease: Clinical Characteristics and Biologic Correlates,” Journal of Pediatric Hematology/Oncology 26, no. 12 (2004): 785–790.Google Scholar
Platt, O. S. Brambilla, D. J. Rosse, W. F. Milner, P. F. Castro, O. Steinberg, M. H. Klug, P. P., “Mortality in Sickle Cell Disease: Life Expectancy and Risk Factors for Early Death,” New England Journal of Medicine 330, no. 23 (1994): 1639–1644.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smith, W. R., “Pain in Sickle Cell Disease: The Future of Acute Treatment,” Expert Review of Hematology 4, no. 3 (2011): 237–239.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hebbel, R. P. Vercellotti, G. Nath, K. A., “A Systems Biology Consideration of the Vasculopathy of Sickle Cell Anemia: The Need for Multi-Modality Chemo-Prophylaxsis,” Cardiovascular & Hematological Disorders-Drug Targets 9, no. 4 (2009): 271–292.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Conran, N. Franco-Penteado, C. F. Costa, F. F., “Newer Aspects of the Pathophysiology of Sickle Cell Disease Vaso-Occlusion,” Hemoglobin 33, no. 1 (2009): 1–16.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Charache, S. Terrin, M. L. Moore, R. D. Dover, G. J. McMahon, R. P. Barton, F. B. Waclawiw, M. Eckert, S. V., and the Investigators of the Multicenter Study of Hydroxyurea in Sickle Cell Anemia, “Design of the Multicenter Study of Hydroxyurea in Sickle Cell Anemia,” Controlled Clinical Trials 16 (1995): 432–446.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Charache, S. Terrin, M. L. Moore, R. D. et al., “Effect of Hydroxyurea on the Frequency of Painful Crises in Sickle Cell Anemia: Investigators of the Multicenter study of Hydroxyurea in Sickle Cell Anemia,” New England Journal of Medicine 332 (1995): 1317–1322.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Steinberg, M. H. Barton, F. Castro, O. et al., “Effect of Hydroxyurea on Mortality and Morbidity in Adult Sickle Cell Anemia: Risks and Benefits up to 9 Years of Treatment,” JAMA 289 (2003): 1645–1651.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Steinberg, M. H. McCarthy, W. F. Castro, O. Ballas, S. K. Armstrong, F. D. Smith, W. Ataga, K. Swerdlow, P. Kutlar, A. DeCastro, L. Waclawiw, M. A. (Investigators of the Multicenter Study of Hydroxyurea in Sickle Cell Anemia and MSH Patients' Follow-Up, “The Risks and Benefits of Long-Term Use of Hydroxyurea in Sickle Cell Anemia: A 17.5 Year Follow-Up,” American Journal of Hematology 85, no. 6 (2010): 403–408.Google Scholar
Costigan, M. Scholz, J. Woolf, C. J., “Neuropathic Pain: A Maladaptive Response of the Nervous System to Damage,” Annual Review of Neuroscience 32 (2009):1–32.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ballas, S. K. Gupta, K. Adams-Graves, P., “Sickle Cell Pain: A Critical Reappraisal,” Blood 120, no. 18 (2012): 3647–3656.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
See Smith, et al., supra note 9.Google Scholar
Kato, G. J. Hebbel, R. P. Steinberg, M. H. Gladwin, M. T., “Vasculopathy in Sickle Cell Disease: Biology, Pathophysiology, Genetics, Translational Medicine, and New Research Directions,” American Journal of Hematology 84, no. 9 (2009): 618–625.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ballas, S. K. Smith, E. D., “Red Blood Cell Changes during the Evolution of the Sickle Cell Painful Crisis,” Blood 79 (1992): 2154–2163.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brandow, A. M. Brousseau, D. C. Panepinto, J. A., “Postdischarge Pain, Functional Limitations and Impact on Caregivers of Children with Sickle Cell Disease Treated for Painful Events,” British Journal of Haematology 144, no. 5 (2009): 782–788; Ballas, S. K. Lusardi, M., “Hospital Readmission for Adult Acute Sickle Cell Painful Episodes: Frequency, Etiology, and Prognostic Significance,” American Journal of Hematology 79 (2005): 17–25.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smith, W. R. Scherer, M., “Sickle-Cell Pain: Advances in Epidemiology and Etiology,” Hematology: American Society of Hematology Education Program 2010, no. 1 (2010): 409–415.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wilkie, D. J. Molokie, R. Boyd-Seal, D. Suarez, M. L. Kim, Y. O. Zong, S. Wittert, H. Zhao, Z. Saunthararajah, Y. Wang, Z. J., “Patient-Reported Outcomes: Descriptors of Nociceptive and Neuropathic Pain and Barriers to Effective Pain Management in Adult Outpatients with Sickle Cell Disease,” Journal of the National Medical Association 102, no. 1 (2010): 18–27.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Flor, H., “Maladaptive Plasticity, Memory for Pain and Phantom Limb Pain: Review and Suggestions for New Therapies,” Expert Review in Neurotherapeutics 8, no. 5 (2008): 809–818.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stisi, S. Cazzola, M. Buskila, D. Spath, M. Giamberardino, M. A. Sarzi-Puttini, P. Arioli, G. Alciati, A. Leardini, G. Gorla, R. Marsico, A. Ceccherelli, F. Bazzichi, L. Carignola, R. Gracely, R. H. Salaffi, F. Marinangeli, F. Torta, R. Di Franco, M. Biasi, G. Cassisi, G. Casale, R. Altomonte, L. Atzeni, F. (Italian Fibromyalgia Network), “Etiopathogenetic Mechanisms of Fibromyalgia Syndrome,” Reumatismo 60, Supp. 1 (2008): 25–35; Harris, R. E. Clauw, D. J. Scott, D. J. McLean, S. A. Gracely, R. H. Zubieta, J. K., “Decreased Central Mu-Opioid Receptor Availability in Fibromyalgia,” Journal of Neuroscience 27, no. 37 (2007): 10000–10006.Google Scholar
Lembo, T. Naliboff, B. D. Matin, K. Munakata, J. Parker, R. A. Gracely, R. H. Mayer, E. A., “Irritable Bowel Syndrome Patients Show Altered Sensitivity to Exogenous Opioids,” Pain 87, no. 2 (2000): 137–147.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ballas, S. K. Bauserman, R. L. McCarthy, W. F. Castro, O. L. Smith, W. R. Waclawiw, M. A. (Investigators of the Multicenter Study of Hydroxyurea in Sickle Cell Anemia), “Hydroxyurea and Acute Painful Crises in Sickle Cell Anemia: Effects on Hospital Length of Stay and Opioid Utilization during Hospitalization, Outpatient Acute Care Contacts, and at Home,” Journal of Pain and Symptom Management 40, no. 6 (2010): 870–882.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ballas, S. K. Bauserman, R. L. McCarthy, W. F. Castro, O. L. Smith, W. R. Waclawiw, M. A. (Investigators of the Multicenter Study of Hydroxyurea in Sickle Cell Anemia), “Utilization of Analgesics in the Multicenter study of Hydroxyurea in Sickle Cell Anemia: Effect of Sex, Age, and Geographical Location,” American Journal of Hematology 85, no. 8 (2010): 613–616.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smith, W. R. Ballas, S. K. McCarthy, W. F. Bauserman, R. L. Swerdlow, P. S. Steinberg, M. H. Waclawiw, M. A. (Investigators of the Multicenter Study of Hydroxyurea in Sickle Cell Anemia), “The Association between Hydroxyurea Treatment and Pain Intensity, Analgesic Use, and Utilization in Ambulatory Sickle Cell Anemia Patients,” Pain Medicine 12, no. 5 (2011): 697–705.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
See Smith, et al., supra note 9.Google Scholar
See Platt, et al., supra note 7.Google Scholar
Meehan, W. J. Adelman, S. A. Rehman, Z. Khoromi, S., “Opioid Abuse”.Google Scholar
Weaver, M. F. Schnoll, S. H., “Opioid treatment of Chronic Pain in Patients with Addiction,” Journal of Pain and Palliative Care Pharmacotherapy 16 (2002): 5–26.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shapiro, B. S. Benjamin, L. J. Payne, R. Heidrich, G., “Sickle Cell-Related Pain: Perceptions of Medical Practitioners,” Journal of Pain Symptom Manage 14, no. 3 (1997): 168–174.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Aisiku, I. P. Reid, R. D. Smith, W. R., “Case Studies in Pain Management: Episodic Pain in Sickle Cell Disease,” Emergency Medicine 41, no. 2 (2009): 8.Google Scholar
Smith, W. R. Jordan, L. B. Hassell, K. L., “Frequently Asked Questions by Hospitalists Managing Pain in Adults with Sickle Cell Disease,” Journal of Hospital Medicine 6, no. 5 (2011): 297–303.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chen, I. Kurz, J. Pasanen, M. Faselis, C. Panda, M. Staton, L. J. O'Rorke, J. Menon, M. Genao, I. Wood, J. Mechaber, A. J. Rosenberg, E. Carey, T. Calleson, D. Cykert, S., “Racial Differences in Opioid Use for Chronic Nonmalignant Pain,” Journal of General Internal Medicine 20, no. 7 (2005): 593–598.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
SAMHSA, Overview of Findings from the 2003 National Survey on Drug Use and Health, Office of Applied Studies, NSDUH Series H-24, DHHS Publication No. SMA 04–3963 (2004).Google Scholar
Beyer, J. E., “Judging the Effectiveness of Analgesia for Children and Adolescents during Vaso-Occlusive Events of Sickle Cell Disease,” Journal of Pain Symptom Management 19 (2000): 63–72.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wilkinson, G. R., “Drug Metabolism and Variability among Patients in Drug Response,” New England Journal of Medicine 352, no. 21 (2005): 2211–2221; Shord, S. S. Cavallari, L. H. Gao, W. Jeong, H. Y. Deyo, K. Patel, S. R. Camp, J. R. Labott, S. M. Molokie, R. E., “The Pharmacokinetics of Codeine and Its Metabolites in Blacks with Sickle Cell Disease,” European Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 65, no. 7 (2009): 651–658; Darbari, D. S. Neely, M. van den Anker, J. Rana, S., “Increased Clearance of Morphine in Sickle Cell Disease: Implications for Pain Management,” Journal of Pain 12, no. 5 (2011): 531–538.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Aisiku, I. P. Smith, W. R. McClish, D. K. Levenson, J. L. Penberthy, L. T. Roseff, S. D. Bovbjerg, V. E. Roberts, J. D., “Comparisons of High Versus Low Emergency Department Utilizers in Sickle Cell Disease,” Annals of Emergency Medicine 53, no. 5 (2009): 587–593.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Klaassen, C. D., Casarett & Doull's Toxicology: The Basic Science of Poisons, 6th ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill Professional, 2001): At 17.Google Scholar
Roshanpour, M. Ghasemi, M. Riazi, K. Rafiei-Tabatabaei, N. Ghahremani, M. H. Dehpour, A. R., “Tolerance to the Anticonvulsant Effect of Morphine in Mice: Blockage by Ultra-Low Dose Naltrexone,” Epilepsy Research 83, no. 2–3 (2009): 261–264.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Koch, T. Höllt, V., “Role of Receptor Internalization in Opioid Tolerance and Dependence,” Pharmacology & Therapeutics 117, no. 2 (2008): 199–206.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
South, S. M. Smith, M. T., “Analgesic Tolerance to Opioids: International Association for the Study of Pain,” Pain: Clinical Updates 9, no. 5 (2001): 1–4.Google Scholar
Miotto, K., “Diagnosing Addictive Disease in Chronic Pain Patients,” Psychosomatics 37 (1996): 223–235.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bobo, L. Miller, S. T. Smith, W. R. Elam, J. T. Rosmarin, P. C. Lancaster, D. J., “Health Perceptions and Medical Care Opinions of Inner-City Adults with Sickle Cell Disease and Asthma Compared with Their Siblings,” Southern Medical Journal 82 (1989): 9–12; Coulton, C. Frost, A. K., “Use of Social and Health Services by the Elderly,” Journal of Health and Social Behavior 23 (1982): 330.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Murray, N. et al., “Painful Crises in Sickle Cell Disease -Patients' Perspectives,” BMJ 297, no. 6646 (1988): 452–454.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brookoff, D. Polomano, R., “Treating Sickle Cell Pain Like Cancer Pain,” Annals of Internal Medicine 166, no. 5 (1992): 364–368.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
The American Academy of Pain Medicine and the American Pain Society, “The Use of Opioids for the Treatment of Chronic Pain: A Consensus Statement from the American Academy of Pain Medicine and the American Pain Society,” Clinical Journal of Pain 13 (1997): 6–8.Google Scholar
Caudill-Slosberg, M. A. Schwartz, L. M. Woloshin, S., “Office Visits and Analgesic Prescriptions for Musculoskeletal Pain in US: 1980 vs 2000,” Pain 109 (2004): 514–519; Olsen, Y. Daumit, G. L. Ford, D. E., “Opioid Prescriptions by US Primary Care Physicians from 1992 to 2001,” Journal of Pain 7 (2006): 225–235.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bohnert, A. S. Valenstein, M. Bair, M. J. Ganoczy, D. McCarthy, J. F. Ilgen, M. A. Blow, F. C., “Association between Opioid Prescribing Patterns and Opioid Overdose-Related Deaths,” JAMA 305, no. 13 (2011): 1315–1321.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Colliver, J. D. Kroutil, L. A. Dai, L. Gfroerer, J. C., Misuse of Prescription Drugs: Data from the 2002, 2003, 2nd 2004 National Surveys on Drug Use and Health, DHHS Publication no. SMA 06–4192, Analytic Series A-28 (Rockville, MD: Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, Office of Applied Studies, 2006). Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, Office of Applied Studies, Emergency Department Trends from the Drug Abuse Warning Network, Final Estimates 1995–2002, DAWN Series D-24, DHHS Publication no. SMA 03–3780 (Rockville, MD: DHHS, 2003). Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, Office of Applied Studies, Results from the 2005 National Survey on Drug Use and Health: National Findings, NSDUH Series H-30, DHHS Publication No. SMA 06–4194 (Rockville, MD: DHHS, 2006a). Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, Office of Applied Studies, Treatment Episode Data Set (TEDS): Highlights - 2005: National Admissions to Substance Abuse Treatment Services, DHHS DASIS Series: S-36, DHHS Publication No. SMA 07–4229 (Rockville, MD: DHHS, 2006b).Google Scholar
Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, Office of Applied Studies, The NSDUH Report: Patterns and Trends in Nonmedical Prescription Pain Reliever Use: 2002 to 2005, available at <http://www.oas.samhsa.gov/2k7/pain/pain.htm>(last visited March 27, 2014).(last+visited+March+27,+2014).>Google Scholar
Drug Enforcement Administration, “A Joint Statement from 21 Health Organizations and the Drug Enforcement Administration: Promoting Pain Relief and Preventing Abuse of Pain Medications: A Critical Balancing Act,” Journal of Pain and Symptom Management 24, no. 2 (2002): 147; Chou, R. Fanciullo, G. J. Fine, P. G. Adler, J. A. Ballantyne, J. C. Davies, P. Donovan, M. I. Fishbain, D. A. Foley, K. M. Fudin, J. Gilson, A. M. Kelter, A. Mauskop, A. O'Connor, P. G. Passik, S. D. Pasternak, G. W. Portenoy, R. K. Rich, B. A. Roberts, R. G. Todd, K. H. Miaskowski, C. (American Pain Society-American Academy of Pain Medicine Opioids Guidelines Panel), “Clinical Guidelines for the Use of Chronic Opioid Therapy in Chronic Noncancer Pain,” Journal of Pain 10, no. 2 (2009): 113–130.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Manchikanti, L. Abdi, S. Atluri, S. Balog, C. C. Benyamin, R. M. Boswell, M. V. Brown, K. R. Bruel, B. M. Bryce, D. A. Burks, P. A. Burton, A. W. Calodney, A. K. Caraway, D. L. Cash, K. A. Christo, P. J. Damron, K. S. Datta, S. Deer, T. R. Diwan, S. Eriator, I. Falco, F. J. Fellows, B. Geffert, S. Gharibo, C. G. Glaser, S. E. Grider, J. S. Hameed, H. Hameed, M. Hansen, H. Harned, M. E. Hayek, S. M. Helm, S. Hirsch, J. A. Janata, J. W. Kaye, A. D. Kaye, A. M. Kloth, D. S. Koyyalagunta, D. Lee, M. Malla, Y. Manchikanti, K. N. McManus, C. D. Pampati, V. Parr, A. T. Pasupuleti, R. Patel, V. B. Sehgal, N. Silverman, S. M. Singh, V. Smith, H. S. Snook, L. T. Solanki, D. R. Tracy, D. H. Vallejo, R. Wargo, B. W. (American Society of Interventional Pain Physicians), “American Society of Interventional Pain Physicians (ASIPP) Guidelines for Responsible Opioid Prescribing in Chronic Non-Cancer Pain: Part I – Evidence Assessment,” Pain Physician 15, no. 3, Supp. (2012): S1–S65.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Manchikanti, L. Abdi, S. Atluri, S. Balog, C. C. Benyamin, R. M. Boswell, M. V. Brown, K. R. Bruel, B. M. Bryce, D. A. Burks, P. A. Burton, A. W. Calodney, A. K. Caraway, D. L. Cash, K. A. Christo, P. J. Damron, K. S. Datta, S. Deer, T. R. Diwan, S. Eriator, I. Falco, F. J. Fellows, B. Geffert, S. Gharibo, C. G. Glaser, S. E. Grider, J. S. Hameed, H. Hameed, M. Hansen, H. Harned, M. E. Hayek, S. M. Helm, S. Hirsch, J. A. Janata, J. W. Kaye, A. D. Kaye, A. M. Kloth, D. S. Koyyalagunta, D. Lee, M. Malla, Y. Manchikanti, K. N. McManus, C. D. Pampati, V. Parr, A. T. Pasupuleti, R. Patel, V. B. Sehgal, N. Silverman, S. M. Singh, V. Smith, H. S. Snook, L. T. Solanki, D. R. Tracy, D. H. Vallejo, R. Wargo, B. W. (American Society of Interventional Pain Physicians), “American Society of Interventional Pain Physicians (ASIPP) Guidelines for Responsible Opioid Prescribing in Chronic Non-Cancer Pain: Part 2 – Guidance,” Pain Physician 15, no. 3, Supp. (2012): S67–S116.Google Scholar
Swegle, J. M. Logemann, C., “Management of Common Opioid-Induced Adverse Effects,” American Family Physician 74, no. 8 (2006): 1347–1354.Google Scholar
Obama Administration Releases Action Plan to Address National Prescription Drug Abuse Epidemic: New Strategy Strikes Balance between Cracking down on Drug Diversion and Protecting Delivery of Effective Pain Management, DEA News Release, April 19, 2011, ONDCP Public Affairs Number: 202-395–6618, available at <http://www.justice.gov/dea/pubs/pressrel/pr041911.html>(last visited March 27, 2014).(last+visited+March+27,+2014).>Google Scholar
Principles of Analgesic Use in the Treatment of Acute Pain and Cancer Pain, 5th ed. (Glenview, IL: American Pain Society, 2003).Google Scholar
Ives, T. J. Chelminski, P. R. Hammett-Stabler, C. A. Malone, R. M. Perhac, J. S. Potisek, N. M. Shilliday, B. B. DeWalt, D. A. Pignone, M. P., “Predictors of Opioid Misuse in Patients with Chronic Pain: A Prospective Cohort Study,” BMC Health Services Research 6 (2006): 46.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Levenson, J. L. McClish, D. K. Dahman, B. A. Penberthy, L. T. Bovbjerg, V. E. Aisiku, I. P. Roseff, S. D. Smith, W. R., “Alcohol Abuse in Sickle Cell Disease: The Pisces Project,” American Journal of Addiction 16, no. 5 (2007): 383–388.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Campos-Outcalt, D., “Should You Screen – or Not? The Latest Recommendations,” Journal of Family Practice 57, no. 7 (2008): 469–472.Google Scholar
Aisiku, I. P. Penberthy, L. T. Smith, W. R. Bovbjerg, V. E. McClish, D. K. Levenson, J. L. Roberts, J. D. Roseff, S. D., “Patient Satisfaction in Specialized Versus Nonspecialized Adult Sickle Cell Care Centers: The PiSCES Study,” Journal of the National Medical Association 99, no. 8 (2007): 886–890.Google Scholar