Hostname: page-component-848d4c4894-ndmmz Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-30T13:27:13.198Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

The Pan American Health Organization and the Mainstreaming of Human Rights in Regional Health Governance

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  01 January 2021

Benjamin Mason Meier  and
Ana S. Ayala
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Extract

In the development of a rights-based approach to global health governance, international organizations have looked to human rights under international law as a basis for public health. Operationalizing human rights law through global health policy, the World Health Organization (WHO) has faced obstacles in efforts to mainstream human rights across the WHO Secretariat. Without centralized human rights leadership in an increasingly fragmented global health policy landscape, regional health offices have sought to advance human rights in health governance and support states in realizing a rights-based approach to health. Examining the efforts of the Pan American Health Organization (PAHO), this article explores the evolution of human rights in PAHO policy, assesses the mainstreaming of human rights in the Pan American Sanitary Bureau (Bureau or PASB), and analyzes the future of the rights-based approach through regional health governance.

Type
Independent
Information
Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics , Volume 42 , Issue 3 , Fall 2014 , pp. 356 - 374
Copyright
Copyright © American Society of Law, Medicine and Ethics 2014

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Cueto, M., The Value of Health: A History of the Pan American Health Organization (Rochester: University of Rochester Press, 2007).Google Scholar
Pan American Sanitary Code, Transactions of the Seventh Pan American Sanitary Conference of the American Republics. Washington, Pan American Sanitary Bureau, 1924, at art. 55;.Google Scholar
Bustamante, M. E., The Pan American Sanitary Bureau. Half a Century of Health Activities 1902–1954 (Washington: Pan American Sanitary Bureau, 1955).Google Scholar
Id (Pan American Sanitary Code), at art. 57.Google Scholar
Howard-Jones, N., “The Pan American Health Organization: Origins and Evolution,” WHO Chronicle 34 (1980): 419–426.Google Scholar
Birn, A.-E., Marriage of Convenience: Rockefeller International Health and Revolutionary Mexico (Rochester: University of Rochester Press, 2006).Google Scholar
Acuña, H., “The Pan American Health Organization – 75 Years of International Cooperation in Public Health,” Public Health Rep 22, no. 6 (1977): 539–541.Google Scholar
Doull, J. A., “Nations United for Health,” in Simmons, J. S., ed., Public Health in the World Today (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1949): At 317–332.Google Scholar
World Health Organization, The First Ten Years of the World Health Organization (Geneva: WHO, 1958);.Google Scholar
Markel, H., “Worldly Approaches to Global Health: 1851 to the Present,” Public Health 128, no. 2 (2014): 124–128.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sze, S., “Today's Global Frontiers in Public Health,” American Journal of Public Health 35, no. 2 (1945): 96–99.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Proceedings and Final Acts of the International Health Conference, Official Records of the World Health Organization No. 2 (New York: World Health Organization-Interim Commission, 1946).Google Scholar
Constitution of the World Health Organization (Geneva: WHO, 1946): Art. 2(v).Google Scholar
Berkov, R., The World Health Organization: A Study in Decentralized International Administration (Geneva: E. Droz, 1957).Google Scholar
See Constitution of the World Health Organization, supra note 11, at art. 44.Google Scholar
Farley, J., Brock Chisholm, the World Health Organization, and the Cold War (Vancouver: UBC Press, 2008).Google Scholar
Goodman, N. M., International Health Organizations and Their Work (London: J&A Churchill, 1952): 253–254.Google Scholar
Calderwood, H. B., “The WHO and Regional Organizations,” Temple Law Quarterly 37, no. 1 (1963): 15–27.Google Scholar
Soper, F. L., “Some Aspects of the WHO's Programs in the Americas,” American Journal of Public Health 41, no. 12 (1951): 1464–1468.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
van Zile Hyde, H., “Bilateral International Health Programs of the United States,” American Journal of Public Health 41, no. 12 (1951): 1473–1476;.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Soper, F. L., Ventures in World Health: The Memoirs of Fred Lowe Soper (Washington: Pan American Health Organization, 1977).Google Scholar
Constitution of the Pan American Sanitary Organization. Actas de la Decimasegunda Conferencia Sanitaria Panamericana. Caracas, Enero 11–24, 1947 (Washington: Pan American Sanitary Organization, 1947).Google Scholar
Fee, E. Brown, T., “Editorial: 100 Years of the Pan American Health Organization,” American Journal of Public Health 92, no. 12 (2000): 1888–1889.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
See Constitution of the World Health Organization, supra note 11.Google Scholar
Final Report of the XII Pan American Sanitary Conference, Caracas, January 24, 1947, at 23–24.Google Scholar
Keener, S. R. Vasquez, J., “A Life Worth Living: Enforcement of the Right to Health Through the Right to Life in the Inter-American Court of Human Rights,” Columbia Human Rights Law Review 40, no. 3 (2008): 595–624.Google Scholar
Pan American Health Organization, Directing Council. Health and Human Rights (PAHO, Washington, D.C., October 1, 2009) (Document CD50/12).Google Scholar
Arellano, O. L. Saint-Martin, F. P., “Health and Society: Contributions of Latin American Perspectives,” Social Medicine 1, no. 3 (2006): 156–174.Google Scholar
Stolkiner, A., “Human Rights and the Right to Health in Latin America: The Two Faces of One Powerful Idea,” Social Medicine 5, no. 1 (2010): 58–59.Google Scholar
Alleyne, G. A. O., “The Challenge and Prize for International Health Organizations in the Americas,” Saluda Pública de México 39, no. 5 (1997): 480–485.Google Scholar
Oppenheimer, G. M. Bayer, R. Colgrove, J., “Health and Human Rights: Old Wine in New Bottles?” Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics 30, no. 4 (2002): 522–532.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Allende, S., La Realidad medico-social Chilena (Santiago: Ministerio de Salubridad, Previsión y Asistencia Social, 1939);.Google Scholar
Waitzkin, H., “Commentary: Salvador Allende and the Birth of Latin American Social Medicine,” International Journal of Epidemiology 34, no. 4 (2005): 739–741.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Waitzkin, H. Iriart, C. Estrada, A. Lamadrid, S., “Social Medicine Then and Now: Lessons from Latin America,” American Journal of Public Health 91, no. 10 (2001): 1592–1601.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Porter, D., “How Did Social Medicine Evolve, and Where Is It Heading?” PLOS Medicine 3, no. 10 (2006): 1667–1672.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Charter of Punta del Este, Establishing an Alliance for Progress Within the Framework of Operation Pan America, Aug. 17, 1961;.Google Scholar
Gordon, L., A New Deal for Latin America: The Alliance for Progress (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1962);.Google Scholar
Gutiérrez, J. L., “Health Planning in Latin America,” American Journal of Public Health 65, no. 10 (1975): 1047–1049.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
“Health in the Americas: Its Past, Present, and Prospects,” World Health (May 1973): S-2-S-4.Google Scholar
de Almeida Filho, N., Epidemiología sin Números (Washington: Organización Panamericana de la Salud, 1992).Google Scholar
See Waitzkin, et al, supra note 30.Google Scholar
Fuenzalida-Puelma, H. Connor, S. S., The Right to Health in the Americas: A Comparative Constitutional Study (Washington: PAHO, 1989).Google Scholar
Tajer, D., “Latin American Social Medicine: Roots, Development During the 1990's and Current Challenges,” American Journal of Public Health 93, no. 12 (2003): 2023–2027;.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tobin, J., The Right to Health Under International Law (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012).Google Scholar
Mainetti, J. A. Pis Diez, G. Tealdi, J. C., “Bioethics in Latin America: 1989–1991,” Bioethics Yearbook 2 (1992): 83–96.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
See Fuenzalida-Puelma, Connor, , supra note 36.Google Scholar
Arango, R., “Constitucionalismo social latinoamericano,” in Bogdandy, A. V. Ferrer, E. Morales, E., eds., La Justicia Constitucional y su internacionalización. $Hacia un Ius Constitutionale Commune en América Latina? (Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México-Instituto De Investigaciones Jurídicas, Instituto Iberoamericano de Derecho Constitucional, 2010): At 3–24.Google Scholar
See Fuenzalida-Puelma, Connor, , supra note 36.Google Scholar
Londoño, J.-L. Frenk, J., “Structured Pluralism: Towards an Innovative Model for Health System Reform in Latin America,” Health Policy 41, no. 1 (1997): 1–36;.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yamin, A. E., “Protecting and Promoting the Right to Health in Latin America: Selected Experiences from the Field,” Health and Human Rights 5, no. 1 (2000): 116–148.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
See Stolkiner, , supra note 26;.Google Scholar
Leary, V. A., “The Right to Health in International Human Rights Law,” Health and Human Rights 1, no. 1 (1994): 24–56.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
“El Derecho a la Salud: 1958–1975,” Bol de Sanit Panam 113, no. 5/6 (1992): 406–417, at 417 (quoting Abraham Horwitz).Google Scholar
Organización Panamericana de la Salud, Comité Ejecutivo: Relaciones Entre la Salud y el Derecho (PAHO, Washington, D.C., July 11, 1968) (Document CE59/16).Google Scholar
Horwitz, A., “Health: A Right,” World Health (May 1973): S-1.Google Scholar
Battista, M. E., “An Enforceable Human Right to Health: A New Role for WHO,” in Sao Paulo Conference on the Law of the World, August 16–21. Washington, DC: World Peace Through Law Center (1981): At 11 (quoting Letter from PAHO Legal Officer Alberto Rodriguez, April 3, 1981).Google Scholar
Salim, E., “Primary Health Care Belongs in the Mainstream of Development,” World Health Forum 9, no. 3 (1988): 307–309.Google Scholar
Bayer, R., “Public Health Policy and the AIDS Epidemic: An End to HIV Exceptionalism?” New England Journal of Medicine 324, no. 21 (1991): 1500–1504.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fee, E. Parry, M., “Jonathan Mann, HIV/AIDS, and Human Rights,” Journal of Public Health Policy 29, no. 1 (2008): 54–71;.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gruskin, S. Mills, E. J. Tarantola, D., “History, Principles, and Practice of Health and Human Rights,” The Lancet 370, no. 9585 (2007): 449–454.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mann, J. M. Gostin, L. Gruskin, S. Brennan, T. Lazzarini, Z. Fineberg, H., “Health and Human Rights,” in Mann, J. M.et al, eds., Health and Human Rights: A Reader (New York: Routledge, 1999).Google Scholar
Connor, S. S., “AIDS: Social, Legal, and Ethical Issues of the ‘Third Epidemic,”’ Bulletin of the Pan American Health Organization 23, no. 1/2 (1989): 95–107;.Google Scholar
Fuenzalida-Puelma, H. Linares Parada, A. M. Serrano LaVertu, D., eds., Ethics and Law in the Study of AIDS (Washington: PAHO, 1992).Google Scholar
Interview with Rafael Mazin, July 24, 2013;Google Scholar
PAHO, Promotion of Sexual Health: Recommendations for Action (Guatemala: PAHO, 2000).Google Scholar
Levav, I. Restrepo, H. de Macedo, C. G., “The Restructuring of Psychiatric Care in Latin America: A New Policy for Mental Health Services,” Journal of Public Health Policy 15, no. 1 (1994): 71–85.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Interview with Itzhak Levav, July 30, 2013;CrossRefGoogle Scholar
The Conference on the Restructuring of Psychiatric Care in Latin America within the Local Health Systems, The Caracas Declaration (PAHO/WHO).Google Scholar
Interview with Itzhak Levav, July 30, 2013;.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Levav, I. González Uzcátegui, R., “Rights of Persons with Mental Illness in Central America,” Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 101, Suppl. (2000): 83–86;.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gable, L.et al, “Mental Health and Due Process in the Americas: Protecting the Human Rights of Persons Involuntarily Admitted to and Detained in Psychiatric Institutions,” Revista Panamericana de Salud Püblica 18, no. 4/5 (2005): 366–373.Google Scholar
Jiménez, H. V. Vásquez, J., “El Derecho Internacional, Instrumento Esencial para la Promoción de la Salud Mental en las Américas,” Revista Panamericana de Salud Pública/Pan American Journal of Public Health 9, no. 4 (2001): 264–271.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Interview with Heidi Jimenez, December 5, 2013;Google Scholar
Interview with Mirta Roses>, January 17, 2014.,+January+17,+2014.>Google Scholar
United Nations, Renewing the United Nations: A Programme for Reform: Report of the Secretary-General, U.N. GAOR. 51st Session. UN Doc. A/51/950 (1997).Google Scholar
Lee, K., “The Pit and the Pendulum: Can Globalization Take Health Governance Forward?” Development 47, no. 2 (2004): 11–17.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
See Mann, et al, supra note 50.Google Scholar
Interview with Heidi Jimenez, December 5, 2013;Google Scholar
Interview with Mirta Roses, January 17, 2014.Google Scholar
PAHO, Equity and Health: Views from the Pan American Sanitary Bureau (Washington: PAHO, 2001).Google Scholar
Vásquez, J., “El Derecho a la Salud,” Revista del Instituto Interamericano de Derechos Humanos 40 (2004): 265–289.Google Scholar
Interview with Heidi Jimenez, December 5, 2013.Google Scholar
See Mann, et al, supra note 50.Google Scholar
PAHO, Health and Human Rights, available at <http://www1.paho.org/hr-ecourse-e/index.html>(last visited August 5, 2014).(last+visited+August+5,+2014).>Google Scholar
Pan American Health Organization, Directing Council, Mental Health (PAHO, Washington, D.C., September 29, 2001) (Document CD43/15), available at <http://www1.paho.org/english/gov/cd/cd43_15-e.pdf>(last visited July 28, 2014).(last+visited+July+28,+2014).>Google Scholar
Pan American Health Organization, Directing Council, Plan of Action on the Health of Older Persons Including Active and Healthy Aging (PAHO, Washington, D.C., July 10, 2009) (Document CD49/8).Google Scholar
Pan American Health Organization, Directing Council, Disability: Prevention and Rehabilitation in the Context of the Right to the Enjoyment of the Highest Attainable Standard of Health and Other Related Rights (PAHO, Washington, D.C., August 16, 2006) (Document CD47/15).Google Scholar
Pan American Health Organization, Pan American Sanitary Conference, Regional Strategy for Maternal Mortality and Morbidity Reduction (PAHO, Washington, D.C., August 15, 2002) (Document CSP26/14).Google Scholar
Pan American Health Organization, Directing Council, Plan of Action for Implementing the Gender Equality Policy (PAHO, Washington, D.C., July 15, 2009) (Document CD49/13).Google Scholar
Pan American Health Organization, Directing Council, Access to Care for People Living with HIV/AIDS (PAHO, Washington, D.C., August 4, 2005) (Document CD46/20).Google Scholar
Pan American Health Organization, Directing Council, Health of the Indigenous Peoples of the Americas (PAHO, Washington, D.C., August 18, 2006) (Document CD47/13).Google Scholar
Pan American Health Organization, Directing Council, Plan of Action on Adolescent and Youth Health (PAHO, Washington, D.C., July 15, 2009) (Document CD49/12).Google Scholar
Levav, I., “La Alianza entre los Movimientos de Derechos Humanos y la Reforma de la Atencion en Salud Mental: Estrategia de Superación de las Transgresiones por Comisión y por Omisión,” Revista de Derecho Privado y Comunitario 1 (2013): 11–23.Google Scholar
Interview with Jorge Rodriguez>, July 25, 2013;,+July+25,+2013;>Google Scholar
PAHO Directing Council, Health and Human Rights: Concept Paper, Provisional Agenda Item 4.8. CD50/12. 31 August 2010;.Google Scholar
Arboleda-Flórez, J., “Stigmatization and Human Rights Violations,” in World Health Organization, ed., Mental Health: A Call for Action by World Health Ministers (2001).Google Scholar
Pan American Health Organization, Directing Council, Strategy and Plan of Action on Mental Health (PAHO, Washington, D.C., October 2, 2009) (Document CD49/17).Google Scholar
PAHO, WHO, Promotion of Sexual Health: Recommendations for Action (PAHO, Antigua Guatemala, Guatemala 2000).Google Scholar
World Association for Sexual Health, Sexual Health for the Millenium: A Declaration and Technical Document (Minneapolis: World Association for Sexual Health, 2008).Google Scholar
PAHO, Por la Salud de las Personas Trans (Washington: PAHO, 2011).Google Scholar
Interview with Rafael Mazin, July 24, 2013.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Interview with Enrique Vega, July 24, 2013.Google Scholar
PAHO Directing Council, Resolution CSP26, R20 (September 2002).Google Scholar
PAHO, Exposure to Secondhand Tobacco Smoke in the Americas – A Human Rights Perspective (Washington: PAHO, 2006).Google Scholar
PAHO, Manual for Developing Tobacco Control Legislation in the Region of the Americas (Washington: PAHO, 2013).Google Scholar
PAHO Directing Council, Health and Human Rights: Concept Paper, Provisional Agenda Item 4.8. CD50/12, August 31, 2010, at 20.Google Scholar
Id, at 14.Google Scholar
Guyana Training, “Health and Human Rights Law Workshop, Held 24 and 25 April 2013,” available at <http://www.paho.org/guy/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=172:health-and-human-rights-law-workshop-held-24-and-25-april-2013&catid=675:guy.paho/who/cida-project>(last visited July 28, 2014).(last+visited+July+28,+2014).>Google Scholar
Interview with Javier Vasquez, July 24, 2013.Google Scholar
Communication between Javier Vasquez and Enrique Vega on Workshop in El Salvador, May 17, 2007.Google Scholar
Interview with Matilde Maddelano, July 25, 2013.Google Scholar
PAHO et al., The Right of Young People to Health and Gender Identities: Findings, Trends, and Targets for Public Health Action (Washington: PAHO, 2011).Google Scholar
Interview with Javier Vasquez, July 25, 2013.Google Scholar
PAHO, Supporting the Implementation of Mental Health Policies in the Americas: A Human Rights Law-based Approach. Findings, Trends and Targets for Public Health Action (Washington: PAHO, 2010).Google Scholar
Interview with Adriana Blanco, July 25, 2013.Google Scholar
OAS, Report of the Pan American Health Organization (PAHO)/World Health Organization (WHO) (2011).Google Scholar
Pan American Health Organization, Health Agenda for the Americas 2008–2017, presented by the Ministries of Health of the Americas in Panama City within the framework of the XXXVII General Assembly of the Organization of American States (Washington: PAHO, 2007).Google Scholar
Pan American Sanitary Conference, Strategic Plan 2008–2012, Amended (October 5, 2007) (Document CSP27.R4).Google Scholar
Pan American Sanitary Conference, Strategic Plan 2014–2019, Amended (June 2013).Google Scholar
Interview with Carissa Etienne, November 10, 2013.Google Scholar
See Levav, , supra note 76, at 12.Google Scholar
See Levav, et al, supra note 54.Google Scholar
Interview with Itzhak Levav, July 30, 2013;CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Levav, González Uzcátegui, , supra note 55.Google Scholar
Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, >Press Release No. 10/01, available at <http://www.cidh.oas.org/Comunicados/English/2001/Press10–01.htm>(last visited July 30, 2014).Press+Release+No.+10/01,+available+at+(last+visited+July+30,+2014).>Google Scholar
See Gable, et al, supra note 56.Google Scholar
Presentation of the Mental Health Program and the Department of Legal Affairs of the Pan-American Health Organization Before the Interamerican Commission on Human Rights, [110 Session of the ICAHR Cong. (2001) (testimony of Javier Vasquez).Google Scholar
Interview with Heidi Jimenez, December 5, 2013.Google Scholar
Desnutrición Infantil Indígena En Las Américas, Audiencia 130 Periodo Ordinario De Sesiones De La CIDH (2007) (testimony of Javier Vasquez).Google Scholar
Interview with Rafael Mazin, July 24, 2013;.Google Scholar
Interview with Javier Vasquez, July 25, 2013;.Google Scholar
Presentación de la Unidad de VIH/SIDA y la Oficina de Asuntos Jurí dicos de la Organización Panamericana de la Salud ante la Comisión Interamericana de Derechos Humanos, 121 Periodo De Sesiones De La CIDH (2004) (testimony of Javier Vásquez).Google Scholar
Annual Report of the IACHR, Chapter 2, (20), available at <http://www.cidh.oas.org/annualrep/2004eng/chap.2.htm>(last visited July 30, 2014).(last+visited+July+30,+2014).>Google Scholar
Current Situation of the Human Rights of Persons Living with HIV in Countries of the Caribbean Region, 144$ Session of the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights Cong. (2012) (testimony of Javier Vasquez).Google Scholar
Affidavit of Expert Witness, Hunt, Paul Gretel Artavia Murillo, et al (‘In Vitro Fertilization’) v. Costa Rica, Inter-American Court of Human Rights, August 24, 2012 (on file with authors).Google Scholar
Guidelines for Preparation of Progress Indicators ESCR, Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, 2008, available at <http://www.cidh.oas.org/countryrep/Indicadores-DESC08eng/Indicadores2.eng.htm#_ftn6>(last visited July 30, 2014).(last+visited+July+30,+2014).>Google Scholar
Protocolo de San Salvador: Presentación de Indicadores de Progreso para Medición de Derechos Contemplados en el Protocolo de San Salvador (2011), CP/doc.4250 corr. 1, presentado por la Comisión Interamericana de Derechos Humanos (CIDH) al Consejo Permanente, en noviembre de 2007, en el marco del mandato otorgado por la resolución AG/RES. 2262 (XXXVII-O/07).Google Scholar
Pan American Sanitary Conference, Health and Aging, CSP 26.R20, 2002.Google Scholar
Pan American Health Organization, Directing Council, Plan of Action on the Health of Older Persons Including Active and Healthy Aging (July 10, 2009) (Document CD49/8). 118.Google Scholar
Permanent Council of the Organization of American States, Committee on Juridical and Political Affairs, Working Group on Protection of the Human Rights of Older Persons, available at <http://www.oas.org/consejo/cajp/personas%20mayores.asp>(last visited July 30, 2014).(last+visited+July+30,+2014).>Google Scholar
See supra notes 68–75.Google Scholar
PAHO Directing Council, Final Report, October 1, CD50/FR, ¶¶ 80–81 (2010).Google Scholar
PAHO Directing Council, Health and Human Rights: Concept Paper, Provisional Agenda Item 4.8. CD50/12, August 31, 2010.Google Scholar
Id, at 21.Google Scholar
Id, at 22.Google Scholar
Interview with Javier Vasquez, March 15, 2013.Google Scholar
PAHO Directing Council, Health and Human Rights, CD50. R8 (2010).Google Scholar
Vasquez, Javier, Health and Human Rights, Youtube, September 30, 2010, available at <http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iTwbX0R-cSU>(last accessed July 30, 2014).(last+accessed+July+30,+2014).>Google Scholar
Vasquez, Javier, PAHO Human Rights Advisor, Speech to 50th Directing Council, September 29, 2010 (on file with authors).Google Scholar
Meier, B. M. Onzivu, W., “The Evolution of Human Rights in World Health Organization Policy and the Future of Human Rights through Global Health Governance,” Public Health 128, no. 2 (2014): 179–187.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Robinson, M., A Voice for Human Rights (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2006).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Meier, B. M., “Global Health Governance and the Contentious Politics of Human Rights: Mainstreaming the Right to Health for Public Health Advancement,” Stanford Journal of International Law 46, no. 1 (2010): 1–50;.Google Scholar
Meier, B. M., “Making Health a Human Right: The World Health Organization and the United Nations Programme on Human Rights and Scientific and Technological Developments,” Journal of the Historical Society 13, no. 2 (2013): 195–229.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barkan, E., “Human Rights Leader or Reluctant Supporter?” International Studies Review 4, no. 3 (2002): 199–202.Google Scholar
Chorev, N., The World Health Organization Between North and South (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2012).Google Scholar
Oestreich, J. E., Power and Principle: Human Rights Programming in International Organizations (Washington: Georgetown University Press, 2007): At 48–50.Google Scholar
Interview with Itzhak Levav, July 30, 2013.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
See Levav, et al, supra note 53.Google Scholar
See Alleyne, , supra note 27;.Google Scholar
Alleyne, G. A. O., “The Pan American Health Organization's First 100 Years: Reflections of the Director,” American Journal of Public Health 92, no. 12 (2002): 1890–1894.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Interview with Matilde Maddelano, July 25, 2013;Google Scholar
PAHO, Adolescent and Youth Regional Strategy and Plan of Action, available at <http://www2.paho.org/hq/dmdocuments/2011/Adolescent%20and%20Youth%20Regional%20Strategy%20and%20Plan%20of%20Action.pdf>(last visited July 30, 2014).(last+visited+July+30,+2014).>Google Scholar
PAHO, Exposure to Secondhand Tobacco Smoke in the Americas – A Human Rights Perspective (Washington: PAHO, 2006), available at <http://www2.paho.org/hq/dmdocuments/2009/HumanrightsandSHSenglish_002.pdf>(last visited July 30, 2014).(last+visited+July+30,+2014).>Google Scholar
Roses, M., presentation at Georgetown University, October 16, 2006, available at <http://www1.paho.org/English/D/Georgetown_CCenter_MRoses.htm>(last visited July 30, 2014).(last+visited+July+30,+2014).>Google Scholar
Interview with Paul Hunt, August 15, 2013.Google Scholar
Interview with Mirta Roses, January 17, 2014;.Google Scholar
Lutz, E. L. Sikkink, K., “International Human Rights Law and Practice in Latin America,” International Organization 54, no. 3 (2000): 633–659.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sikkink, K., “Human Rights, Principled Issue-Networks, and Sovereignty in Latin America,” International Organization 47, no. 3 (1993): 411–441;.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moravcsik, A., “The Origins of Human Rights Regimes: Democratic Delegation in Postwar Europe,” International Organization 54, no. 2 (2000): 217–252.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cardenas, S., Human Rights in Latin America: A Politics of Terror and Hope (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2010);.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pasqualucci, J. M., The Practice and Procedure of the Inter-American Court of Human Rights (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2013).Google Scholar
Interview with Rafael Mazin, July 24, 2013;.Google Scholar
Cáceres, C. F., Key Challenges in Programming Priorities for the HIV Response Concerning Sexually Diverse Populations in Latin America and the Caribbean (2009), available at <http://www.bvsde.paho.org/texcom/sct/045632.pdf>(last visited July 30, 2014).(last+visited+July+30,+2014).>Google Scholar
Gostin, L. O., The AIDS Pandemic: Complacency, Injustice and Unfulfilled Expectations (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2004).Google Scholar
Interview with Rafael Mazin, July 24, 2013.Google Scholar
Evans, D. P., “Salud para Todo: Cuba's Revolutionary Approach towards the Fulfillment of the Right to Health,” in Cholewka, P. Motlagh, M. M., eds., Health Capital and Sustainable Socioeconomic Development (CRC: Boca Raton, 2008);.Google Scholar
Frisancho, A., “The Right to Health in Peru,” in Zuniga, J. M. Marks, S. P. Gostin, L. O., eds., Advancing the Human Right to Health (New York: Oxford University Press, 2013);Google Scholar
see Keener, Vasquez, , supra note 23.Google Scholar
Interview with Itzhak Levav, July 30, 2013.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Interview with Mirta Roses, January 17, 2014.Google Scholar
PAHO Directing Council, CD52/18, Addressing the Causes of Disparities in Health Service Access and Utilization for Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Trans (LGBT) Persons (2013);Google Scholar
PAHO, Health Authorities Pledge to Improve Access to Health Care for LGBT People, Press Release, available at <http://www.paho.org/hq/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=9056%3A-health-authorities-pledge-to-improve-access-to-health-care-for-lgbt-people&catid=740%3Anews-press-releases&Itemid-=1926&lang=en>(last visited July 30, 2014).(last+visited+July+30,+2014).>Google Scholar
Interview with Mirta Roses, January 17, 2014.Google Scholar
Interview with Carissa Etienne, November 10, 2013.Google Scholar
Taylor, A. L., “Making the World Health Organization Work: A Legal Framework for Universal Access to the Conditions for Health,” American Journal of Law & Medicine 18, no. 4 (1992): 301–346.Google Scholar
Oberleitner, G., Global Human Rights Institutions (Cambridge: Polity, 2007).Google Scholar
See Oestreich, , supra note 134.Google Scholar
Interview with Javier Vásquez, July 24, 2013.Google Scholar
PAHO, Legal Experts Define Strategies to Use Legislation to Promote the Right to Health in the Americas, Press Release, December 15, 2013, available at <http://www.paho.org/hq/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=9238%3Alegal-experts-define-strategies-to-use-legislation-to-promote-the-right-to-health-in-the-americas&catid=1443%3Anews-front-page-items&Itemid=1926&lang=en>(last visited July 30, 2014).(last+visited+July+30,+2014).>Google Scholar
See Jiménez, Vásquez, , supra note 56.Google Scholar
Interview with Heidi Jimenez, December 5, 2013.Google Scholar
Interview with Paul Hunt, August 15, 2013.Google Scholar
Interview with Enrique Vega, July 24, 2013.Google Scholar
World Health Organization, “Gender, Equity and Human Rights at the Core of the Health Response,” 2012, available at <http://www.who.int/gender/about/ger/en/index.html>(last visited July 30, 2014);(last+visited+July+30,+2014);>Google Scholar
see Meier, Onzivu, , supra note 129.Google Scholar
PAHO, “The Right of Young People to Health and Gender Identities,” available at <http://new.paho.org/hq/index.php?option=com_content&view=category&layout=blog&id=1178&Itemid=643&lang=en>(last visited July 30, 2014).(last+visited+July+30,+2014).>Google Scholar
Interview with Heidi Jimenez, December 5, 2013.Google Scholar
O'Neill Institute for National and Global Health Law, Georgetown University, WHO Annual Report: 2013 (on file with authors).Google Scholar
See Oberleitner, , supra note 156.Google Scholar
See Oestreich, , supra note 134.Google Scholar
IdGoogle Scholar
See Oberleitner, , supra note 156.Google Scholar
Interview with Rafael Mazin, July 24, 2013.Google Scholar
OAS, “Working Group on Protection of the Human Rights of Older Persons,” available at <https://www.oas.org/consejo/cajp/personas%20mayores.asp>(last visited July 30, 2014).(last+visited+July+30,+2014).>Google Scholar
Hillman, A. A., “Human Rights and Deinstitutionalization: A Success Story in the Americas,” Revista de Panamericana de Salud Pública/Pan American Journal of Public Health 18, no. 4/5 (2005): 374–379.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
UNAIDS, 1st Meeting of Ministers of Health and Education to Stop HIV and STIs in Latin America and the Caribbean, available at <http://data.unaids.org/pub/BaseDocument/2008/20080801_minsterdeclaration_en.pdf>..>Google Scholar
Interview with Matilde Maddelano, July 25, 2013.Google Scholar
Interview with Adriana Blanco, July 25, 2013.Google Scholar
Interview with Javier Vasquez>, July 24, 2013.,+July+24,+2013.>Google Scholar