Hostname: page-component-8448b6f56d-m8qmq Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-20T00:12:50.030Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Olfaction: a review

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  29 June 2007

Nick Jones  and
David Rog
Nick Jones*
Affiliation:
Department of Otorhinolaryngology–Head and Neck Surgery, Queen's Medical Centre, Nottingham, U.K.
David Rog
Affiliation:
Department of Otorhinolaryngology–Head and Neck Surgery, Queen's Medical Centre, Nottingham, U.K.
*
Address for correspondence: N. S. Jones, Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, Queen's Medical Centre, University Hospital, Nottingham NG7 2UH.
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

An abstract is not available for this content so a preview has been provided. Please use the Get access link above for information on how to access this content.
Image of the first page of this content. For PDF version, please use the ‘Save PDF’ preceeding this image.'

Keywords

Olfactory mucosaNasal cavityPhysiologyClinical protocols
Type
Review Article
Information
The Journal of Laryngology & Otology , Volume 112 , Issue 1 , January 1998 , pp. 11 - 24
Copyright
Copyright © JLO (1984) Limited 1998

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Adrian, D. E. (1954) The basis of sensation: some recent studies of olfaction. British Medical Journal 1: 287.Google Scholar
Amoore, J. E. (1977) Specific anosmia and the concept of primary odors. Chemical Sens. Flavor. 2: 267–281.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Amoore, J. E. (1984) Effects of chemical exposure on olfaction in humans. Toxicology of the Nasal Passages. (Barrow, C. S., ed.) McGraw-Hill International Book Company, Washington, pp 155–190.Google Scholar
Amoore, J. E., Ollman, B. G. (1983) Practical test kits for quantitatively evaluating the sense of smell. Rhinology 21: 49–54.Google ScholarPubMed
Anon (1991) Body odour at $6780 a gram used to collect unpaid bills. Ottawa Citizen. 26th October.Google Scholar
Anon (1992) The nose knows. Ottawa Citizen. 17th September.Google Scholar
Artis, D. (1986) Odour nuisance: Legal controls. Journal of Planning and Environmental Law August: 565–577.Google Scholar
Baker, H. (1995) Transport phenomena within the olfactory system. Handbook of Olfaction and Gustation. (Doty, R. L., ed.) Marcel Dekker, New York, pp 173–190.Google Scholar
Bargmann, C. (1996) From the nose to the brain. Nature 384: 512–513.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bellas, D. N. (1989) Olfactory lateralization and identification in the right hemisphere lesion and stroke patients. Neurophysiologica 27(9): 1187.Google Scholar
Biedlingmaier, J. F., Whelan, P. J. (1996) Analysis for olfactory epithelium using olfactory marker protein on endoscopically harvested middle turbinate. American Journal of Rhinology 10: 221–224.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boudjelal, M., Sivaprasadarao, A., Finlay, J. B. (1996) Membrane receptor for odour-binding proteins. Biochemistry Journal 317(1): 23–27.Google Scholar
Bouvet, J. F. (1988) The activity of olfactory receptor cells is affected by acetylcholine and substance P. Neuroscience Research 5: 214–223.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Breipohl, W., Bhatnajar, K. P., Mendoza, A. (1979) Fine structure of the receptor free epithelium in the vomeronasal organ of the cat. Cell Tissue Research 200: 383–395.Google Scholar
Brizzee, K. R. (1975) Changes in microanatomy, neurocytology, and fine structures with aging. Advances in Behavioural Biology 16: 425–461.Google Scholar
Bruce, H. M. (1959) An extroceptive block to pregnancy in the mouse. Nature 184: 105.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Buck, L., Axel, R. (1991) A novel multigene family may encode odorant receptors: a molecular basis for odour recognition. Cell 65: 175–187.Google Scholar
Cain, W. S. (1989) Testing olfaction in a clinical setting. Ear, Nose and Throat Journal 68: 316–328.Google Scholar
Chalke, H. D. (1958) Loss of sense of smell in old people. Public Health 72: 223–230.Google Scholar
Cheesman, G. H., Townsend, M. J. (1956) Further experiments on the olfactory thresholds of pure chemical substances, using the ‘sniff bottle’ method. Quarterly Journal Experimental Psychology 8: 8–14.Google Scholar
Chess, A., Simon, I., Cedar, H., Axel, R. (1994) Allelic inactivation regulates olfactory receptor gene expression. Cell 78: 823–834.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chuah, M. I., Zheng, D. R. (1987) Olfactory marker protein is present in olfactory receptor cells of human fetuses. Neuroscience 23: 363–370.Google Scholar
Classen, C. (1994) Aroma: the Cultural History of Smell. Routledge, London, p 8.Google Scholar
Darwin, C. (1898) The descent of Man and Selection in Relation to Sex. York., Appleton D. pp 17–18.Google Scholar
Deems, D. A., Doty, R. L., Settle, G., Moore-Gillon, V., Sharman, P., Mester, A. F., Kimmelman, C. P., Brightman, V. J., Snow, J. B. (1991) Smell and taste disorders, a study of 750 patients from the University of Pennsylvania smell and taste centre. Archives of Otolaryngology - Head and Neck Surgery 117: 519–528.Google Scholar
Dodson, H. C. (1980) Structural Aspects of Aging in the Olfactory and Vomeronasal Epithelia in Mice. IRL Press, London, pp 151–154.Google Scholar
Doty, R. (1994) Olfaction and multiple chemical sensitivity. Toxicology and Industrial Health 10(4/5): 359–368.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Doty, R. L., Deems, D., Stellar, S. (1988) Olfactory dysfunction in Parkinson's disease. Neurology 38: 1237–1244.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Doty, R. L., Gregor, T. (1986) Influences of interval and sniff bottle volume on the phenyl ethyl alcohol olfactory detection threshold. Chemical Senses 11: 259–264.Google Scholar
Doty, R. L., Shaman, P., Applebaum, S. L., Giberson, R., Sikorski, L., Rosenberg, L. (1984a) Smell identification ability: changes with age. Science 226: 1441–1443.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Doty, R. L., Shaman, P., Damm, M. (1984b) Development of the University of Pennsylvania smell identification test: a standardized microencapsulated test of olfactory function. Physiology of Behaviour (Monograph) 32: 489–502.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Douek, E. (1974) The Sense of Smell and its Abnormalities. Churchill Livingstone, Edinburgh, pp 25–40.Google Scholar
Downey, L. L., Jacobs, J. B., Lebowitz, R. A. (1996) Anosmia and chronic sinus disease. Otolaryngology - Head and Neck Surgery 115: 24–28.Google Scholar
Eastwood, B. S. (1981) Galen on the elements of olfactory sensation. Rheinishes Museum fur Philologie 124: 268–289.Google ScholarPubMed
Eichenbaum, H. (1983) Selective olfactory deficits in case H.M. Brain 106: 459–472.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Engen, T. (1974) Method and Theory in the Study of Odour Preference. Academic Press, New York, pp 2–7.Google Scholar
Esiri, M. M. (1984) Herpes simplex encephalitis: immunocytochemical demonstration of spread of virus via olfactory and trigeminal pathways after infection of facial skin in mice. Journal of Neurological Sciences 64: 213–217.Google Scholar
Evans, W. J., Cui, L., Starr, A. (1995) Olfactory event-related potentials in normal human subjects: effects of age and gender. Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology 95: 293–301.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Firestein, S., Breer, H., Greer, C. A. (1996) Olfaction: what's new in the nose? Journal of Neurobiology 30: 1–2.3.0.CO;2-A>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Frye, R. E. (1990) Dose related effects of cigarette smoking on olfactory function. Journal of the American Medical Association 263(9): 1233.Google Scholar
Furstenberg, A. C. (1943) Neurologic lesions which influence the sense of smell. Archives of Otolaryngology 48: 529.Google Scholar
Goto, N. (1977) Nasencephalopathy of mice infected intranasally with a mouse hepatitis virus. Japanese Journal of Experimental Medicine 47: 59–70.Google Scholar
Hasegawa, S., Yamagishi, M., Nakano, Y. (1986) Microscopic studies of human olfactory following traumatic anosmia. Archives of Otorhinolaryngology 243(2): 112–116.Google Scholar
Hatt, H. (1996) Molecular mechanisms of olfactory processing in the mammalian olfactory epithelium. ORL 56: 183–194.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hendriks, A. P. J. (1988) Olfactory dysfunction. Rhinology 26(4): 229.Google Scholar
Henkin, R. I. (1994) Drug-induced taste and smell disorders. Incidence, mechanisms and management related primary to treatment of sensory receptor dysfunction. Drug Safety 11: 318–377.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Herz, R. S., Cupchik, G. C. (1995) The emotional distinctiveness of odour-evoked memories. Chemical Stress 20: 517–528.Google Scholar
Hinds, J. W. (1984) An autoradiographic study of mouse olfactory epithelium: evidence for long lived receptors. Anatomy Review 210: 375–383.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Holcomb, J. D., Graham, S., Calof, A. C. (1996) Neuronal homeostasis in mammalian olfactory epithelium: a review. American Journal of Rhinology 10: 125–134.Google Scholar
Jackson, R. T. (1979) Subarachnoid space of the CNS, nasal mucosa, and lymphatic system. Archives of Otolaryngology 105: 180–184.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jacobson, L. (1811) Description anatomique d'un organe observe dans les mammiferes. Annales de Musées d'Histoire Naturelle. Paris 18: 412–424.Google Scholar
Jafek, B. W., Eller, P. M., Esses, B. A. (1989) Post-traumatic anosmia: Ultrastructural correlates. Archives of Neurology 46: 300–304.Google Scholar
Jesberger, J. A. (1988) Brain output dysregulation induced by olfactory bulbectomy: an approximation in the rat of major depressive disorder in humans? International Journal of Neuroscience 38: 241.Google Scholar
Johnson, A., Josephson, R., Hawke, M. (1985) Clinical and histological evidence for the presence of the vomeronasal organ (Jacobson's) organ in adult humans. Journal of Otolaryngology 14: 71.Google Scholar
Kant, I. (1978) Anthropology from a Pragmatic Point of View. Carbondale and Edwardsville, Southern Illinois University Press, p 46.Google Scholar
Kauer, J. S., Cinelli, A. R. (1993) Are there structural and functional modules in the vertebrae olfactory bulb? Microscopy Research and Technology 24: 157–167.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kendrick, K. M., Guevara-Guzman, R., Zorrilla, J., Hinton, M. R., Broad, K. D., Mimmack, M., Ohkuva, S. (1997) Formation of olfactory memories mediated by nitric oxide. Nature 388: 670–673.Google Scholar
Kettenmann, B., Jousmaki, V., Portin, K., Salmelin, R., Kobal, G., Hari, R. (1996) Odourants activate the human superior temporal sulcus. Neuroscience Letters 203: 143–145.Google Scholar
Kimmelman, C. P. (1991) Medical Imaging of Smell and Taste Disorders. Raven, New York, pp 471–479.Google Scholar
Kimmelman, C. P. (1993) Clinical review of olfaction. American Journal of Otolaryngology 14(4): 227–239.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kimmelman, C. P. (1994) The risk to olfaction from nasal surgery. Laryngoscope 104: 981–988.Google Scholar
Knupfer, L., Spiegel, R. (1986) Differences in olfactory test performance between normal aged, Alzheimer, and vascular-type demented individuals. International Journal of Geriatrics and Psychiatry 21: 116–118.Google Scholar
Kobal, G., Hummel, T. (1996) Human electro-olfactograms and brain responses to olfactory stimulation. In The Human Sense of Smell. (Laing, D. G., Doty, R. L., Breipohl, W., eds.) Springer-Verlag, Berlin, pp 135–215.Google Scholar
Koizuka, I., Yano, H., Nagahara, M., Mochizuki, R., Seo, R., Shimada, K., Kubo, T., Nogawa, T. (1994) Functional imaging of the human olfactory cortex by magnetic resonance imaging. ORL 56: 273–275.Google Scholar
Kurahashi, T., Mwnini, A. (1997) Mechanism of odorant adaptation in the olfactory receptor cell. Nature 385: 725–729.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lancet, D. (1994) Exclusive receptors. Nature 372: 321–322.Google Scholar
Landfield, P. W. (1984) Prolonged Ca2+ after hyperpolarizations in hippocampal neurons in aged rats. Science 226: 1089–1092.Google Scholar
Lang, J. (1989) Clinical Anatomy of the Nose, Nasal Cavity and Paranasal Sinsuses. Georg Thieme Verlag, Stuttgart. pp 118–122.Google Scholar
Lanza, D. C., Deems, D. A., Doty, R. L., Moran, D., Crawford, D., Rowley, J. C., Sajjadian, A., Kennedy, D. W. (1994) The effect of human olfactory biopsy on olfaction. Laryngoscopy 104(7): 837–840.Google Scholar
Lanza, D. C., Moran, D. T., Doty, R. L., Trojanowski, J. Q., Lee, J. H., Rowley, J. C., Crawford, D., Kennedy, D. W. (1993) Endoscopic human olfactory biopsy: a preliminary report. Laryngoscope 103: 815–819.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lazard, D., Zupko, K., Poria, Y., Naef, P., Lazarovits, J., Horn, S., Khen, M., Lancet, D. (1991) Odorant signal termination by olfactory UDP-glucuronosyl transferase. Nature 349: 790–793.Google Scholar
Leopold, D. A. (1986) Physiology of Olfaction. In Otolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery. (Cummings, C. W. ed.) vol. 1. Mosby, C. V., St Louis, pp 640–664.Google Scholar
Leopold, D. A. (1991) Successful treatment of phantosmia with preservation of olfaction. Archives of Otolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery 117: 1402–1406.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Leopold, D. A., Hornung, D. E., Schwob, J. E. (1992) Congenital lack of olfactory ability. Annals of Otology, Rhinology and Laryngology 101: 229–236.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Levin, H. S. (1985) Impairment of olfactory recognition after closed head injury. Brain 108(3): 579.Google Scholar
Lewin, B. (1994) On neuronal specificity and the molecular basis of perception. Cell 79: 935–943.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Livermore, A., Hummel, T., Kobal, G. (1992) Chemosensory event-related potentials in the investigation of interactions between the olfactory and the somatosensory (trigeminal) systems. Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology 83: 201–210.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lovell, M. A., Jafek, B. W., Moran, D. T. (1982) Biopsy of human olfactory mucosa: instrument and a technique. Archives of Otolaryngology 108: 247–249.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lygonis, C. S. (1969) Familial absence of olfaction. Heredity 61: 413.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
MacFarlane, A. (1975) Olfaction in the development of social preferences in the human neonate. Ciba Foundation Symposium 33: 103.Google Scholar
Macholdo-Salas, J. (1977) Morphologic changes in the hypothalamus of old mouse. Experimental Neurology 57: 102–111.Google Scholar
Mombaerts, P. (1996) Targeting olfaction. Current Opinion in Neurobiology 6: 481–486.Google Scholar
Mombaerts, P., Wang, F., Dulac, C., Chao, S. K., Nemes, A., Mendelsohn, M., Edmondson, J., Axel, R. (1996) Visualizing an olfactory sensory map. Cell 87: 675–686.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mori, K., Mataga, N., Imamura, K. (1992) Differential specificities of single mitral cells in rabbit olfactory bulb for a homologous series of fatty acid odour molecules. Journal of Neurophysiology 67: 786–789.Google Scholar
Mori, K., Yoshihara, Y. (1995) Molecular recognition and olfactory processing in the mamalian olfactory system. Progress in Neurobiology 45: 585–619.Google Scholar
Mott, A. E. (1991) Disorders of taste and smell. Medical Clinics of North America 75: 1321–1353.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Murray, A. (translator) (1924) Homer, The Iliad, 2 volumes. William Heinemann, London, p 40.Google Scholar
Nakashima, T. (1984) Structure of human fetal and adult olfactory neuroepithelium. Archives of Otolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery 110: 641–646.Google Scholar
Nakashima, T., Kimmelman, C. P., Snow, J. B. (1985) Vomeronasal organs and nerves of Jacobson in the human foetus. Acta Otolaryngologica 99: 266–271.Google Scholar
Neurological and Communicative Disorders and Stroke Council (1991) Report of the panel on communicative disorders to the national advisory Neurological and Communicative Disorders and Stroke Council. Washington DC, Natl Inst Health.Google Scholar
Ngai, J., Chess, A., Dowling, M. M., Necles, N., Macagno, E. R., Axle, R. (1993) Coding of olfactory information: Topography of odorant receptor expression in the catfish epithelium. Cell 72: 667–680.Google Scholar
Norton, T. (1975) Ordinal of Alchemy. Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp 365–369.Google Scholar
Ohm, T. G. (1987) Olfactory bulb changes in Alzheimer's disease. Acta Neuropathology 73: 365–369.Google Scholar
Oppenheim, R. W. (1991) Cell death during development of the nervous system. Annual Reviews in Neuroscience 14: 453–501.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Paul, S. 2 Corinthians, 2, 15.Google Scholar
Pearson, R. C. (1985) Anatomical correlates of the distribution of the pathological changes in the neocortex of Alzheimer's disease. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science USA 82: 4531–4534.Google Scholar
Pelosi, P. (1994) Odorant-binding proteins. Critical Reviews in Biochemistry and Molecular Biology 29: 199–228.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pierce, J. D., Wysocki, C. J., Aronov, E. V., Webb, J. B., Bodem, R. M. (1996) The role of perceptual and structural similarity in cross-adaptation. Chemical Senses 21: 223–237.Google Scholar
Quraishi, S., Jones, N. S., Mason, J. (1997) The nasal delivery of drugs. Clinical Otolaryngology 22: 289–301.Google Scholar
Rackham, H. (translator) (1960) In Pliny - Natural History. William Heinemann, London, pp 101–109.Google Scholar
Ressler, K. J., Sullivan, S. L., Buck, L. B. (1993) A zonal organization of odorant receptor gene expression in the olfactory epithelium. Cell 73: 597–609.Google Scholar
Ressler, K. J., Sullivan, S. L., Buck, L. B. (1994) A molecular dissection of spatial patterning in the olfactory system. Current Opinion in Neurobiology 4: 588–596.Google Scholar
Roberts, E. (1986) Alzheimer's disease may begin in the nose and may be caused by aluminosilicates. Neurobiology of Aging 7: 561–567.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rosin, I. (1995) A code in the nose. British Broadcasting Corporation. Horizon: 1–15.Google Scholar
Royet, J. P., Souchier, C., Jourdan, F., Ploye, H. (1988) Morphometric study of the glomerular population in the mouse olfactory bulb: Numerical density and size distribution along the rostrocaudal axis. Journal of Comparative Neurology 270: 559–568.Google Scholar
Russell, M. J., Switz, G. M., Thompson, K. (1980) Olfactory influences on the human menstrual cycle. Pharmacology, Biochemistry and Behaviour 13: 737–738.Google Scholar
Sacks, O. (1987) The man who mistook his wife for a hat. Duckworth, London, p 159.Google Scholar
Schall, B. (1980) Les stimulations olfactives dans les relations entre l'enfant la mère. Reproduction, Nutrition, Development 20: 843.Google Scholar
Scheibel, M. E. (1975) Structural Changes in the Ageing Brain. Raven, New York, pp 11–37.Google Scholar
Schiffman, S. S. (1983) Taste and smell in disease. New England Journal of Medicine 308: 1337–1343.Google Scholar
Schiffman, S. S. (1991) Changes in taste and smell over the life span: their effect on appetite and nutrition in the elderly. In Chemical Senses, Appetite and Nutrition. (Friedman, M., ed.) Dekker, New York, pp 341–365.Google Scholar
Schiffman, S. S. (1992a) Effects of environmental pollutants on taste and smell. Otolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery 106: 693–700.Google Scholar
Schiffman, S. S. (1992b) Olfaction in ageing and medical disorders. In Science of Olfaction. (Serby, M. J., Chobor, K. L., eds.) Springer, New York, pp 500–525.Google Scholar
Schiffman, S. S. (1993) Clinical physiology of taste and smell. Annual Reviews of Nutrition 13: 405–436.Google Scholar
Scott, A. E. (1989) Clinical characteristics of smell and taste disorders. Ear, Nose and Throat Journal 68: 297.Google Scholar
Segal, N. L., Topolski, T. D. (1995) The genetics of olfactory perception. In Handbook of Olfaction and Gustation. (Doty, R. L., ed.) Marcel Dekker, New York, pp 323–343.Google Scholar
Seiden, A. M. (1992) Office management of taste and smell disorders. Otolaryngologic Clinics of North America 25: 817–835.Google Scholar
Ship, J. A., Pearson, J. D., Cruise, L. J., Brant, L. J., Metter, E. J. (1996) Longitudinal changes in smell identification. Journal of Gerontologie, Series A, Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences 51: 86–91.Google Scholar
Sicard, G., Holley, A. (1984) Receptor cell responses to odorants: Similarities and differences among odorants. Brain Research 292: 283–296.Google Scholar
Singh, N., Grewal, M. S., Austin, J. H. (1970) Familial anosmia. Archives of Neurology 22: 40–44.Google Scholar
Snow, J. B. (1991) Differential diagnosis of transport and sensorineural chemosensory disorders. In Smell and Taste in Health and Disease. (Getchell, T. V., Doty, R. L., Bartoshvik, L. M., Snow, J. B., eds.) Raven, New York, pp 469–470.Google Scholar
Stevens, J. C. (1982) Reduction of odour and nasal pungency associated with aging. Neurobiology of Aging 3: 125–132.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stoddart, D. M. (1992) The Scented Ape. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 1–30.Google Scholar
Strahan, R. C. (1991) Biopsy of olfactory neuroepithelium. In Smell and Taste in Health and Disease. (Getchell, T. V., ed.) Raven, New York, pp 703–709.Google Scholar
Synnott, A. (1993) The Body Social. Routledge, London. pp 202–204.Google Scholar
Taylor, R. (1994) Brave new nose: sniffing out human sexual chemistry. Journal of NIH Research 5: 47–51.Google Scholar
Tomlinson, A. H. (1983) Herpes simplex encephalitis: immunohistological demonstration of spread of virus via olfactory pathways in mice. Journal of Neurological Science 60: 473–484.Google Scholar
Toyota, B., Kitamura, T., Takagi, S. F. (1978) Olfactory Disorders, Olfactometry and Therapy. Igaku-Shoin, Tokyo. pp 5–83.Google Scholar
Turin, L. (1996) A spectroscopic mechanism for primary olfactory reception. Chemical Senses 21: 773–791.Google Scholar
Vassar, R., Ngai, J., Axel, R. (1993) Spatial segregation of odorant receptor expression in the mammalian olfactory epithelium. Cell 74: 309–318.Google Scholar
Ward, C. D., Hess, W. A., Calne, D. B. (1983) Olfactory impairment in Parkinson's disease. Neurology 33: 943–946.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Williams, P. L. (1995) Gray's Anatomy, 38th Edition. (Bannister, H., Berry, M. M., Collins, P. et al. , eds.) Churchill Livingstone, New York, pp 1315–1321.Google Scholar
Wright, H. N. (1987) Characterization of olfactory dysfunction. Archives of Otolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery 113: 163–168.Google Scholar
Wysocki, C. J. (1979) Neurobehavioural evidence for the involvement of the vomeronasal system in mammalian reproduction. Neuroscience and Behavioural Reviews 3: 301–341.Google Scholar
Yamagishi, M. (1988) Examination and classification of human olfactory mucosa in patients with clinical olfactory disturbances. Archives of Otolaryngology 245(5): 316.Google Scholar
Yousem, D. M., Geckle, R. J., Bilker, W., McKeown, D. A., Doty, R. L. (1996) MR evaluation of patients with congenital hyposmia or anosmia. American Journal of Roentgenology 166: 439–443.Google Scholar
Zatore, R. J. (1990) Right nostril advantage for discrimination of odours. Perceptions in Psychophysiology 47(6): 526.Google Scholar