Hostname: page-component-76fb5796d-2lccl Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-25T15:56:29.332Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Everyday Life as Critique in Late Colonial Korea: Kim Namch'ŏn's Literary Experiments, 1934–43

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  19 August 2009

Sunyoung Park
Get access

Abstract

Perhaps the most renowned leftist writer of late colonial Korea, Kim Namch'ŏn left a complex body of work that has so far defied an encompassing interpretation. On the one hand, in his theoretical writings, Kim consistently advocated realism as his aesthetic principle. On the other hand, within his fictional writings, Kim also displayed an antithetical interest in the fragmentary scenes of modern life, which he often depicted through experimental techniques of a modernist aesthetic sensibility. In this essay, an attempt is made to provide a unified account of Kim's works. Special attention is given to Kim's early theorization of the everyday as a proper literary space for a materialist critique of society. This focus on everyday life, it is argued, enabled Kim to critique both the teleological outlook of dogmatic socialism and the utopian vision of pan-Asianism, but it did not shelter him from a fascination with the daily spectacles of urban modernity.

Type
Research Article
Information
The Journal of Asian Studies , Volume 68 , Issue 3 , August 2009 , pp. 861 - 893
Copyright
Copyright © The Association for Asian Studies, Inc. 2009

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

List of References

Adorno, Theodor W. 1973. Philosophy of Modern Music. Trans. Mitchell, Anne G and Blomster, Wesley V. New York: Continuum.Google Scholar
Ch'ae, Hosŏk. 1999. “Kim Namch'ŏn munhak yŏn'gu” [A study of Kim Namch'ŏn's literature]. PhD diss., Seoul National University.Google Scholar
Chang, Sasŏn. 1988. Han'guk riŏlijŭm munhangnon [Korean theories of realism]. Seoul: Saemunsa.Google Scholar
Ching, Leo T. S. 2001. Becoming “Japanese”: Colonial Taiwan and the Politics of Identity Formation. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Choi, Hyun-Moo. 1995. “Contemporary Korean Literature: Form Victimization to Minjung Nationalism.” In South Korea's Minjung Movement: The Culture and Politics of Dissidence, ed. Wells, Kenneth, 167–78. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i.Google Scholar
Chŏn, Sangsuk. 2004. Ilche sigi han'guk sahoe chuŭi chisigin yŏn'gu [A study of socialist intellectuals in colonial Korea]. Seoul: Chisik sanŏpsa.Google Scholar
Chou, Wan-Yao. 1996. “The Kōminka Movement in Taiwan and Korea: Comparisons and Interpretations.” In The Japanese Wartime Empire, 1931–1945, ed. Duus, Peter, Myers, Ramon H, and Peattie, Mark R, 40–70. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ch'unch'u. 1941–42. Kyŏngsŏng: Ch'unch'usa.Google Scholar
Dilworth, David A, Viglielmo, Valdo H, and Zavala, Agustin Jacinto, eds. 1998. Sourcebook for Modern Japanese Philosophy: Selected Documents. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.Google Scholar
Doak, Kevin Michael. 1994. Dreams of Difference: The Japanese Romantic School and the Crisis of Modernity. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eckert, Carter J 1996. “Total War, Industrialization, and Social Change in Late Colonial Korea.” In The Japanese Wartime Empire, 1931–1945, ed. Duus, Peter, Myers, Ramon H, and Peattie, Mark R, 3–39. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Felski, Rita. 1995. The Gender of Modernity. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Han, Sŏrya. 1995. T'ap oe [Pagoda and other works]. Vol. 10 of Han'guk sosŏl munhak taegye [Modern Korean novels]. Seoul: Tonga ch'ulp'ansa.Google Scholar
Harootunian, Harry D 2000a. History's Disquiet: Modernity, Cultural Practice, and the Question of Everyday Life. New York: Columbia University Press.Google Scholar
Harootunian, Harry D. 2000b. Overcome by Modernity: History, Culture, and Community in Interwar Japan. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Highmore, Ben. 2002. Everyday Life and Cultural Theory: An Introduction. New York: Routledge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hino, Ashihei. 1939. Barley and Soldiers. Trans. Bush, K and Bush, L. W. Tokyo: Kenkyusha.Google Scholar
Im Hwa, . 1989. Munhak ŭi nolli [The logic of literature]. Seoul: Tanŭm ch'ulp'ansa.Google Scholar
Inmun P'yŏngnon. 1939–41. Kyŏngsŏng: Inmunsa.Google Scholar
Jameson, Frederic. 1990. “Modernism and Imperialism.” In Nationalism, Colonialism, and Literature, ed. Jameson, Frederic, 43–66. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.Google Scholar
Kang, Kyŏngae. 1934. “In'gan munje” [The human problem]. Tonga ilbo, August 1–December 22. Repr. Kang Kyǒngae chǒnjip [Collected works of Kang Kyǒngae], ed. Sanggyǒng, Yi, 135–413. Seoul: Somyǒng ch'ulp'an, 2002.Google Scholar
Kim Chaeyong, . 2004. Hyŏmnyŏk kwa chŏhang: Ilche mal sahoe wa munhak [Collaboration and resistance: Late colonial Korean society and literature]. Seoul: Somyŏng ch'ulp'an.Google Scholar
Kim, Chaeyong, and Miran, Kim, trans. and eds. 2003. Singmin chuŭi wa hyŏmnyŏk [Colonialism and collaboration]. Seoul: Yongnak.Google Scholar
Kim, Chaeyong, Miran, Kim, and Hyekŏng, No, trans. and eds. 2003. Singmin chuŭi wa pihyŏmnyŏk ŭi chŏhang [Colonialism and resistance]. Seoul: Yŏngnak.Google Scholar
Kim Chul, . 2001. “‘Kǔndae ǔi ch'oǔk,’ Nangbi, and Benech'ia” [“Overcoming the modern,” Waste, and Venice]. Minjok munhaksa yŏn'gu 18:359–95.Google Scholar
Kim Namch'ŏn, 1931. “Kongjang sinmun” [Factory newsletter]. Chosŏn ilbo, July 5–15. Repr. Maek [Barley], 7–29. Seoul: Munhak kwa chisŏngsa, 2006.Google Scholar
Kim Namch'ŏn, . 1932. “Konguhoe” [Factory fraternity]. Chosŏn chigwang, February. Repr. Maek [Barley], 27–39. Seoul: Munhak kwa chisŏngsa, 2006.Google Scholar
Kim Namch'ŏn, . 1934a. “Ch'angjak pangbŏp e isŏsŏ chŏnhwan ŭi munje” [On changing the method of creation]. Hyŏngsang, March. Repr. Kim Namch'ŏn chŏnjip [Collected essays of Kim Namch'ŏn], ed. Houng, Chŏng and Chŏngsu, Son, 1:63–72. Seoul: Pagijŏn, 2000.Google Scholar
Kim Namch'ŏn, . 1934b. “Ŏrin tu ttal ege” [To my young daughters]. Uridŭl. Repr. Kim Namch'ŏn chŏnjip [Collected essays of Kim Namch'ŏn], ed. Houng, Chŏng and Chŏngsu, Son, 2:1–29. Seoul: Pagijŏn, 2000.Google Scholar
Kim Namch'ŏn, . 1935. “Ch'angjak kwajŏng e taehan kamsang” [A thought on the method of creation]. Chosŏn ilbo, May 16–20. Repr. Kim Namch'ŏn chŏnjip [Collected essays of Kim Namch'ŏn], ed. Houng, Chŏng and Chŏngsu, Son, 1:73–82. Seoul: Pagijŏn, 2000.Google Scholar
Kim Namch'ŏn, . 1936. “Kŭ tui ŭi ŏrin tu ttal” [Again to my daughters]. Chungang, June. Repr. Kim Namch'ŏn chŏnjip [Collected essays of Kim Namch'ŏn], ed. Houng, Chŏng and Chŏngsu, Son, 2:39–47. Seoul: Pagijŏn, 2000.Google Scholar
Kim Namch'ŏn, . 1937a. “Kobal ŭi chŏngsin kwa chakka” [The writer and the spirit of indictment]. Chosŏn ilbo, June 3–5. Repr. Kim Namch'ŏn chŏnjip [Collected essays of Kim Namch'ŏn], ed. Houng, Chŏng and Chŏngsu, Son, 1:220–32. Seoul: Pagijŏn, 2000.Google Scholar
Kim Namch'ŏn, . 1937b. “Ch'angjak pangŏp ŭi sin'gungmyŏn” [On a new method of creation]. Chosŏn ilbo, July 10–15. Repr. Kim Namch'ŏn chŏnjip [Collected essays of Kim Namch'ŏn], ed. Houng, Chŏng and Chŏngsu, Son, 1:233–44. Seoul: Pagijŏn, 2000.Google Scholar
Kim Namch'ŏn, . 1937c. “Chisigin ŭi chagi punyŏl kwa pulyo pulgul ŭi chŏngsin” [The intellectual's schizophrenia and indomitable spirit]. Chosŏn ilbo, August 14. Repr. Kim Namch'ŏn chŏnjip [Collected essays of Kim Namch'ŏn], ed. Houng, Chŏng and Chŏngsu, Son, 1:245–48. Seoul: Pagijŏn, 2000.Google Scholar
Kim Namch'ŏn, . 1938a. “Chajak annae” [Introduction to my works]. Sahae kongnon, July. Repr. Kim Namch'ŏn chŏnjip [Collected essays of Kim Namch'ŏn], ed. Houng, Chŏng and Chŏngsu, Son, 1:381–86. Seoul: Pagijŏn, 2000.Google Scholar
Kim Namch'ŏn, . 1938b. “Todŏk ŭi munhakchŏk p'aak” [On a literary approach to morals]. Tonga ilbo, March 8–12. Repr. Kim Namch'ŏn chŏnjip [Collected essays of Kim Namch'ŏn], ed. Houng, Chŏng and Chŏngsu, Son, 1:337–49. Seoul: Pagijŏn, 2000.Google Scholar
Kim Namch'ŏn, . 1938c. “Mongsang ǔi sun'gyŏlsŏng” [An innocent daydream]. Chogwang, March. Repr. Kim Namch'ŏn chŏnjip [Collected essays of Kim Namch'ŏn], ed. Houng, Chŏng and Chŏngsu, Son, 2:56–59. Seoul: Pagijŏn, 2000.Google Scholar
Kim Namch'ŏn, . 1938d. “Ilsinsang chilli wa moral” [Personal truth and morals]. Chosŏn ilbo, April 17–24. Repr. Kim Namch'ŏn chŏnjip [Collected essays of Kim Namch'ŏn], ed. Houng, Chŏng and Chŏngsu, Son, 1:350–61. Seoul: Pagijŏn, 2000.Google Scholar
Kim Namch'ŏn, . 1938e. “Moral ŭi hwangnip” [The accomplishment of morals]. Tonga ilbo, June 1. Repr. Kim Namch'ŏn chŏnjip [Collected essays of Kim Namch'ŏn], ed. Houng, Chŏng and Chŏngsu, Son, 1:371–73. Seoul: Pagijŏn, 2000.Google Scholar
Kim Namch'ŏn, . 1938f. “Changp'yŏn sosŏl e daehan na ŭi isang” [My proposal for the ideal novel]. Ch'ŏngsaekchi, August. Repr. Kim Namch'ŏn chŏnjip [Collected essays of Kim Namch'ŏn], ed. Houng, Chŏng and Chŏngsu, Son, 1:388–90. Seoul: Pagijŏn, 2000.Google Scholar
Kim Namch'ŏn, . 1938g. “Set'ae wa p'ungsok” [Trends and customs]. Tonga ilbo, October 14–25. Repr. Kim Namch'ŏn chŏnjip [Collected essays of Kim Namch'ŏn], ed. Houng, Chŏng and Chŏngsu, Son, 1:407–21. Seoul: Pagijŏn, 2000.Google Scholar
Kim Namch'ŏn, . 1939a. “Hwalbingdang” [Skating fellows]. Chosŏn ilbo, January 12. Repr. Kim Namch'ŏn chŏnjip [Collected essays of Kim Namch'ŏn], ed. Houng, Chŏng and Chŏngsu, Son, 2:132–35. Seoul: Pagijŏn, 2000.Google Scholar
Kim Namch'ŏn, . 1939b. “Noksŏngdang” [The green star pharmacy]. Munjang, March, 67–87. Repr. Maek: Kim Namch'ŏn ch'angjakchip [Barley and other stories], 113–36. Seoul: Ŭryu munhwasa, 1988.Google Scholar
Kim Namch'ŏn, . 1939c. “Yangdoryu ŭi toryang” [Writing as a critic and novelist]. Chogwang, July. Repr. Kim Namch'ŏn chŏnjip [Collected essays of Kim Namch'ŏn], ed. Houng, Chŏng and Chŏngsu, Son, 1:511–14. Seoul: Pagijŏn, 2000.Google Scholar
Kim Namch'ŏn, . 1940. “Kyŏngyŏng” [Management]. Munjang, October. Repr. Maek [Barley], 223–79. Seoul: Munhak kwa chisŏngsa, 2006.Google Scholar
Kim Namch'ŏn, . 1941a. “Chŏnhwan'gi wa chakka” [The present historical transition and the writer]. Chogwang, January. Repr. Kim Namch'ŏn chŏnjip [Collected essays of Kim Namch'ŏn], ed. Houng, Chŏng and Chŏngsu, Son, 1:680–89. Seoul: Pagijŏn, 2000.Google Scholar
Kim Namch'ŏn, . 1941b. “Maek” [Barley]. Ch'unch'u, February, 302–50. Repr. Maek [Barley], 280–341. Seoul: Munhak kwa chisŏngsa, 2006.Google Scholar
Kim Namch'ŏn, . 1941c. “Sosŏl ŭi changnae wa in'gansŏng munje” [The question of human nature and the future of the novel]. Ch'unch'u, March. Repr. Kim Namch'ŏn chŏnjip [Collected essays of Kim Namch'ŏn], ed. Houng, Chŏng and Chŏngsu, Son, 1:701–16. Seoul: Pagijŏn, 2000.Google Scholar
Kim Namch'ŏn, . 1942. “Tŭngbul” [Lamp]. Kungmin munhak, March, 106–25.Google Scholar
Kim Namch'ŏn, . 1943. “Aru asa” [One morning]. Kungmin munhak, January 1943. Repr. Singmin chuŭi wa pihyŏmnyŏk ŭi chŏhang [Colonialism and resistance], ed. Chaeyong, Kim, Miran, Kim, and Hyekŏng, No, 235–42. Seoul: Yŏngnak, 2003.Google Scholar
Kim Namch'ŏn, . 1945–47. Tongmaek [Artery]. Sin munye and Sin chosŏn. National Digital Library. http://ultra.dlibrary.go.kr.Google Scholar
Kim Namch'ŏn, . 1947. Samil undong: Kim Namch'on ch'angjakchip [The March First movement and other stories]. Seoul: Ŏmun'gak.Google Scholar
Kim Namch'ŏn, . 1988. Maek: Kim Namch'ŏn ch'angjakchip [Barley and other stories]. Vol. 1 of Puk ŭro kan chakka sŏnjip [Selected works of writers who had gone to the North]. Seoul: Ŭryu munhwasa.Google Scholar
Kim Namch'ŏn, . 1995. Taeha oe [Great currents and other stories]. Vol. 13 of Han'guk sosŏl munhak taegye [Modern Korean novels]. Seoul: Tonga ch'ulp'ansa.Google Scholar
Kim Namch'ŏn, . 2000. Kim Namch'ŏn chŏnjip [Collected essays of Kim Namch'ŏn]. Ed. Houng, Chŏng and Chŏngsu, Son. 2 vols. Seoul: Pagijŏn.Google Scholar
Kim Pyŏngch'ŏl, . 1975. Han'guk kŭndae pŏnyŏk munhaksa yŏn'gu [History of literary translations in modern Korea]. Seoul: Ŭryu munhwasa.Google Scholar
Kim Yerim, . 2002. “1930 nyŏndae huban mollak/chaesaeng ŭi sŏsa wa yŏksa kihoek yŏn'gu” [A study of the narratives of apocalypse/rebirth and the philosophy of history in the late 1930s]. Han'guk kŭndae munhak yŏn'gu, no. 6:195–222.Google Scholar
Kim Yunsik, . 1984. Han'guk kŭndae munhak sasangsa [History of modern Korean literary thoughts]. Seoul: Han'gilsa.Google Scholar
Kim Yunsik, . 1989. “Kohyŏnhak ǔi pangbŏmnon” [The method of modernologio]. In Han'guk munhak ŭi riŏlijŭm kwa modŏnism [Realism and modernism in Korean literature], ed. Yunsik, Kim and Houng, Chŏng, 134–41. Seoul: Minumsa.Google Scholar
Kim Yunsik, and Chŏng Houng, . 1989. Han'guk munhak ŭi riŏlijŭm kwa modŏnism [Realism and modernism in Korean literature]. Seoul: Minumsa.Google Scholar
King Ross, . 2001a. “Cho Myonghui: Pioneer of Korean Proletarian Fiction, Father of Soviet Korean Literature.” Korean Culture 22 (3): 18–23.Google Scholar
King Ross, . trans. 2001b. “Cho Myonghui's Naktong River.” Korean Culture 22 (3): 24–33.Google Scholar
Kōyama, Iwao. 1940. “Sekaishi no rinen” [The idea of world history]. Shisō, April–May 1940.Google Scholar
Kushner, Barak. 2006. The Thought War: Japanese Imperial Propaganda. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press.Google Scholar
Kwŏn, Youngmin. 1998. Han'guk kyegŭp munhak undongsa [A history of the Korean proletarian literary movement]. Seoul: Munye ch'ulp'ansa.Google Scholar
Lukács, Georg. 1962. The Historical Novel. Trans. Mitchell, Hannah and Mitchell, Stanley. London: Merlin Press.Google Scholar
Lukács, Georg. 1963. The Meaning of Contemporary Realism. Trans. Mander, John and Mander, Necke. London: Merlin Press, 1979.Google Scholar
Lukács, Georg. 1971. History and Class Consciousness: Studies in Marxist Dialectics. Trans. Rodney, Livingstone. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1982.Google Scholar
Minjok, Munje Yŏn'guso. 2000. Ilcheha chŏnsi ch'ejegi chŏngch'aek charyo ch'ongsŏ [Complete documents of wartime Japanese policies]. Vol. 66. Kyŏnggi-do Koyang: Han'guk haksul chŏngbo.Google Scholar
Mitchell, Richard. 1976. Thought Control in Prewar Japan. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University.Google Scholar
No Sangnae, trans. and ed. 2000. Chŏnhyang iran muŏssin'ga [What is conversion?]. Seoul: Yŏnghan.Google Scholar
Paek, Ch'ŏl. 1935. “Piae ŭi sŏngsa” [A sacrament of sorrows]. Tonga ilbo, December 22. Repr. K'ap'u pip'yŏng charyo ch'ongsŏ [The collected critical essays of the KAPF], ed. Kyuch'an, Im, and Kihyŏng, Han, 465–74. Seoul: T'aehaksa, 1990.Google Scholar
Paek, Ch'ŏl. 1938. “Chŏnjang munhak ilgo” [A thought on battlefield literature]. Inmun p'yŏngnon 1:46–51.Google Scholar
Paek, Sinae. 1938. “Kwangin sugi” [A mad woman's memoir]. Chosŏn ilbo, June 25–July 7. Repr. Arumdaun noŭl oe [A beautiful sunset and other stories], 195–217. Seoul: Pomu.Google Scholar
Pak T'aewŏn, . 1934. “Sosŏlga Kubo-ssi ŭi iril” [A day in the life of Kubo the novelist]. Chosŏn chungang ilbo, August 1–September 19. Repr. Sosŏlga Kubo-ssi ŭi iril: Pak T'aewŏn sosŏljip [A day in the life of Kubo the novelist: selected stories of Pak T'aewŏn], rev. ed., 17–76. Seoul: Kip'ŭnsaem, 1994.Google Scholar
Pak T'aewŏn, . 1937. Ch'ŏnpyŏn p'unggyŏng [Streamside sketches]. Chogwang, August–October 1936, January–September 1937. Repr., Seoul: Munhak kwa chisŏngsa, 2005.Google Scholar
Pak, Yŏnghŭi. 1934. “Ch'oegŭn munyeron ŭi sinjŏn'gae wa kŭ kyŏnghyang” [A recent new development in literary criticism]. Tonga ilbo, January 2–11, 1934. Repr. Pak Yŏnghŭi chŏnjip [Collected works of Pak Yŏnghŭi], vol. 3, 544–63. Kyŏngsan: Yŏngnam taehakkyo ch'ulp'ansa 1997.Google Scholar
Park, Sunyoung. 2006a. “The Colonial Origin of Korean Realism and Its Contemporary Manifestation.” positions: east asia cultures critique 14 (1): 162–95.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Park, Sunyoung. 2006b. “Writing the Real: Marxism, Modernity, and Literature 1920–1941.” PhD diss., Columbia University.Google Scholar
Poole, Janet. 2004. “Colonial Interiors: Modernist Fiction of Korea,” PhD diss., Columbia University.Google Scholar
Robinson, Michael. 1984. “Colonial Publication Policy and the Korean Nationalist Movement.” In The Japanese Colonial Empire, 1895–1945, ed. Myers, Ramon H. and Peattie, Mark R., 348–98. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Robinson, Michael. 2007. Korea's Twentieth-Century Odyssey: A Short History. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press.Google Scholar
Rosenfield, David M. 2002. Unhappy Soldier: Hino Ashihei and Japanese World War II Literature. New York: Lexington Books.Google Scholar
Sano, Manabu, and Nabeyama, Sadachika. 1933. “Kyōdōhikoku dōshi ni tsugeru bun” [Letter to our common defenders]. Kaizō 15:191–99.Google Scholar
Suzuki, Tomi. 1996. Narrating the Self: Fictions of Japanese Modernity. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Takeuchi, Yoshimi. 2005. What Is Modernity? Trans. and ed. Calichman, Richard F.. New York: Columbia University.Google Scholar
Tang, Xiaobing. 2000. Chinese Modern: The Heroic and the Quotidian. Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press.Google Scholar
Tosaka Jun, . 1936a. Shisō to shite no bungaku [Literature as thought]. Tokyo: Nihon tosho sentā, 1992.Google Scholar
Tosaka Jun, . 1936b. Shishō to fūzoku [Thought and custom]. Tokyo: Heibonsha, 2001.Google Scholar
Van Gogh, Vincent. 1889. Letter to His Brother Theo, September 11, 1889. In The Complete Letters of Vincent van Gogh. Institute for Dynamic Educational Advancement. http://webexhibits.org/vangogh/letter.Google Scholar
Yamada Kō, . 1990. Tosaka Jun to sono jidai [Tosaka Jun and his age]. Tokyo: Kadensa.Google Scholar
Yi Kiyŏng, . 1989. Pom [Spring]. Vol. 4 of Yi Kiyŏng sŏnjip [Selected works of Yi Kiyŏng]. Seoul: P'ulbit.Google Scholar
Yi Kyŏnghun, . 1995. “Kǔndae ǔi ch'ogǔk'non” [Overcoming the modern]. In Tasi ilnǔn yŏksa munhak [Rereading historical literature], ed. yŏn'guhoe, Han'guk munhak, 290–313. Seoul: P'yŏngminsa.Google Scholar
Yi Sanggap, . 1994. “1930 nyŏndae ch'angjak pangbŏmnon yŏn'gu” [A study of 1930s Korean literary theories]. PhD diss., Koryŏ University.Google Scholar
Yi Sanggap, . ed. 1995. Kim Namch'ŏn. Seoul: Saemi.Google Scholar
Yi Tŏkhwa, . 1991. Kim Namch'ŏn yŏn'gu [A study of Kim Namch'ŏn]. Seoul: Ch'ŏngha.Google Scholar