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2 Viljoen, F International Human Rights Law in Africa (2nd ed, 2012, Oxford University Press) at 35–38CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Ayeni, VO “Introduction and preliminary overview of findings” in Ayeni, VO (ed) The Impact of the African Charter and the Maputo Protocol in Selected African States (2016, Pretoria University Law Press) 1 at 5Google Scholar.

3 Viljoen, id at 38.

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6 The fifth and sixth periodic country report of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (2014) was submitted by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs but prepared by a committee made up of senior officers from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Ministry of Justice, Ministry of Women, Children and Youth Affairs, Ministry of Finance and Economic Development, Ministry of Communication Affairs, and the Ethiopian Human Rights Commission. The reporting process in Mauritius for the sixth to eighth combined report on the implementation of the African Charter (2016) was prepared by a committee under the leadership of the prime minister's office. Nigeria's sixth periodic report to the African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights (2017) was produced under the leadership of the Federal Ministry of Justice.

7 Alston “The purposes of reporting”, above at note 5 at 20.

8 “Guidelines for initial reports of state parties under the African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child” (2013, African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights) at 14, para 10.

9 “Guidelines for state reporting under the Protocol to the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights on the Rights of Women in Africa (2010)” in C Heyns and M Killander (eds) Compendium of Key Human Rights Documents of the African Union (6th ed, 2016, Pretoria University Law Press) 200.

10 See “Guidelines on shadow reports of the African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights”, adopted during the African Commission's 72nd ordinary session held from 19 July to 2 August 2022.

11 “SOS pour le peuple oublié: Etat des lieux de la situation des violations des droits des peuples autochtones pygmées en RDC” [SOS for the forgotten people: State of the art of the violations of the rights of indigenous Pygmy peoples in the DRC] (September 2018, Ligue Nationale des Associations des Peuples Autochtones Pygmées du Congo and Others), available at: <https://www.upr-info.org/sites/default/files/document/congo_democratic_republic/session_33_-_may_2019/rapport_alternatif_peuples_autochtones_epu_-_rdc_2018.pdf> (last accessed 20 April 2022).

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13 Adopted by the second ordinary session of the Assembly of the African Union, Maputo, Mozambique, 11 July 2003; entered into force 25 November 2005.

14 Viljoen International Human Rights Law, above at note 2 at 258–59. See further Maputo Protocol, arts 2(2) and 5; and UN Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, art 2 (adopted and opened for signature, ratification and accession by General Assembly res 34/180 of 18 December 1979; entered into force 3 September 1981).

15 AA An-Na'im “Possibilities and constraints of the legal protection of human rights under the constitutions of African countries” in AA An-Na'im (ed) Universal Rights, Local Remedies: Implementing Human Rights in the Legal Systems of Africa (1999, Interights, Afronet and GTZ) 5 at 16–17.

16 Johnson, A “Barriers to fulfilling reporting obligations in Africa under the Protocol to the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights on the Rights of Women in Africa” (2021) 21 African Human Rights Law Journal 176 at 190CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

17 KP Muzaliwa “Publication of the Maputo Protocol in the Official Gazette: Does it make any difference in the Congolese criminal law?” (2020) (copy on file with the author).

18 The obligation to report is provided under the Maputo Protocol, art 26.

19 Viljoen, F “An introduction to the Protocol to the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights on the Rights of Women in Africa” (2009) 16 Washington and Lee Journal of Civil Rights and Social Justice 11 at 35Google Scholar; Biegon, J “Towards the adoption of guidelines for state reporting under the African Union Protocol on Women's Rights: A review of the Pretoria gender expert meeting, 6–7 August 2009” (2009) 9/2 African Human Rights Law Journal 615 at 637Google Scholar.

20 “Concluding observations and recommendations on the periodic and combined periodic report of the Democratic Republic of Congo on the implementation of the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights (2008–2015) and the initial report on the Maputo Protocol (2005–2015)” (African Commission) at 20–22.

21 Johnson “Barriers to fulfilling”, above at note 16 at 189; Nowicka, W “Sexual and reproductive rights and the human rights agenda: Controversial and contested” (2011) 19/38 Reproductive Health Matters 119 at 126CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed; Tamale, S “Crossing the bright line: The abuse of religion to violate sexual and reproductive health rights in Uganda” (2016) 155 Journal of Theology for Southern Africa 136 at 136Google Scholar.

22 See Johnson, id at 176–203; Budoo, A “Analysing the monitoring mechanisms of the African Women's Protocol at the level of the African Union” (2018) 18/1 African Human Rights Law Journal 58CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

23 “50th and 51st combined activity reports” (4 December 2020 to 5 December 2021, African Commission) at 9, para 32.

24 F Banda “Blazing a trail: The African Protocol on Women's Rights comes into force” (2006) 50/1 Journal of African Law 72 at 76–82; LA Obiora and C Whalen “What is right with Africa: The promise of the Protocol on women's rights in Africa” (2015) 2 Transnational Human Rights Law Review 153 at 157–58.

25 TM Makunya “Fostering a gendered approach to peacebuilding in the African Great Lakes region: Perspectives from the Democratic Republic of Congo” (13 October 2021) Kujenga Amani, available at: <https://kujenga-amani.ssrc.org/2021/10/13/fostering-a-gendered-approach-to-peacebuilding-in-the-african-great-lakes-region-perspectives-from-the-democratic-republic-of-congo/> (last accessed 10 February 2023).

26 “List of countries which have signed, ratified / acceded to the Protocol to the African Charter on Human and People's Rights on the Rights of Women in Africa”, available at: <https://au.int/sites/default/files/treaties/37077-sl-PROTOCOL%20TO%20THE%20AFRICAN%20CHARTER%20ON%20HUMAN%20AND%20PEOPLE%27S%20RIGHTS%20ON%20THE%20RIGHTS%20OF%20WOMEN%20IN%20AFRICA.pdf> (last accessed 28 April 2023).

27 Act 06/015 of 12 June 2006 Authorising DRC to Ratify the Protocol to the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights on the Rights of Women in Africa.

28 “RDC: Le Protocole de Maputo enfin publié au journal officiel” [DRC: Maputo Protocol finally published in Official Gazette] (18 June 2018), available at: <https://safe2choose.org/fr/blog/drc-maputo-protocol-legalization-abortion> (last accessed 27 April 2023).

29 The Constitution, arts 153(3) and 215. Its direct application in domestic litigation has been met with serious resistance from conservative judges.

30 AMB Mangu “DR Congo: The long road from war to peace and challenges for peaceful transition and national reconstruction’ (2004) 34/2–3 Africa Insight 34.

31 “Report of the mapping exercise documenting the most serious violations of human rights and international humanitarian law committed within the territory of the Democratic Republic of Congo between March 1993 and June 2003” (2010, Office of the UN High Commissioner of Human Rights), paras 606–21 and 312–16, available at: <https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/Documents/Countries/CD/DRC_MAPPING_REPORT_FINAL_EN.pdf> (last accessed 10 February 2023).

32 Global and Inclusive Peace Accord, sec III(1), available (in French) at: <http://www.justiceinfo.net/media/k2/attachments/RDC/Accord_global_transition_rdc_2003.pdf> (last accessed 10 February 2023); NO Rashidi “L'an I de l'Accord Global et Inclusif en République Démocratique du Congo: De la laborieuse mise en place aux incessants atermoiements” [Year one of the Global and Inclusive Agreement in the Democratic Republic of Congo: From laborious implementation to incessant prevarications] (2003–04) L'Afrique des Grands Lacs: Annuaire 110 at 119 and 133; C Odimba, PR Namegabe and JB Nzabandora “La participation des femmes dans les processus de paix et la prise de décision politique en République Démocratique du Congo” [Women's participation in peace processes and political decision-making in the Democratic Republic of Congo] (2012, International Alert) at 38–39, available at: <https://www.international-alert.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/Gender-Political-Equality-DRC-FR-2012.pdf> (last accessed 10 February 2023).

33 Whitman, S “Women and peace-building in the Democratic Republic of the Congo” (2006) 6 African Journal on Conflict Resolution 29 at 39–40Google Scholar.

34 J-LE Kangashe La Constitution Congolaise du 18 Février 2006 à l’Épreuve du Constitutionnalisme [The Congolese Constitution of 18 February 2006 and constitutionalism] (2010, L'Harmattan) at 80.

35 Odimba et al “La participation des femmes”, above at note 32 at 10. See also AM Ngemba and M Malchiodi Freins à la Participation Politique des Congolaises, Notamment en Période Electorale [Brakes on political participation of the Congolese, notably during elections] (July 2017, UCOFEM et al) at 107–08, available at: <https://internews.org/wp-content/uploads/legacy/2017-10/Internews_DRC_WomenParticipation_French_FullReport_2017-10.pdf> (last accessed 29 April 2023).

36 Aroussi, S Rethinking National Action Plans on Women, Peace and Security (2017, IOS Press) at 43Google Scholar.

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38 “Kananga: Les parents s'insurgent contre le Protocole de Maputo” [Kananga: Parents protest against the Maputo Protocol] (1 August 2007) Radio Okapi, available at: <https://www.radiookapi.net/sans-categorie/2007/08/01/kananga-les-parents-s%25e2%2580%2599insurgent-contre-le-protocole-de-maputo#:~:text=Cette%20manifestation%20intervient%20le%20jour,pendant%20plus%20de%203%20heures.> (last accessed 10 February 2023).

39 Vyas-Doorgapersad, S and Lukamba, TM “The status and political participation of women in the Democratic Republic of Congo (1960–2010): A critical historical reflection” (2011) 62 New Contree 91 at 94Google Scholar.

40 “Report to the African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights on the implementation of the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights from 2008 to 2015 (11th, 12th and 13th periodic reports) and of the Protocol to the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights on the Rights of Women from 2005 to 2015 (initial report and 1st, 2nd and 3rd periodic reports)” (2017, DRC).

41 In March 2023 and June 2022, Zambia and Mauritania submitted their respective reports. See generally “50th and 51st combined activity reports”, above at note 23 at 9.

42 “43rd activity report of the African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights” (June to 15 November 2017) at 5, para 18.

43 “Concluding observations”, above at note 20 at 1. At the time of writing, these concluding observations and recommendations had not yet been published on the African Commission's website.

44 The Commission undertook missions in 2011 and 2016 and discussed the issue of reporting, including the technical support the country needed for such a process.

45 The committee was initially established in 2001, revised in 2007 and then strengthened in 2009.

46 DRC Report, above at note 40 at 28–29, para 104.

47 Id at 4, para 5.

48 Id at 25, paras 79–83.

49 Interview with Mwamba Mushikonkwe, then president of the DRC National Human Rights Commission, Kinshasa, DRC, 14 October 2019.

50 WhatsApp discussion with Rose Mutombo Kiesse, then president of CAFCO, November 2019.

51 Rudman, A “Women's access to regional justice as a fundamental element of the rule of law: The effect of the absence of a women's rights committee on the enforcement of the African Women's Protocol” (2018) 18 African Human Rights Law Journal 319 at 320CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

52 Fombad, CM and Kibet, E “Editorial introduction to special focus: The rule of law in sub-Saharan Africa: Reflections on promises, progress, pitfalls and prospects” (2018) 18 African Human Rights Law Journal 205 at 206CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Fombad, CM “An overview of the crisis of the rule of law in Africa” (2018) 18 African Human Rights Law Journal 213 at 218–28CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

53 Maputo Protocol, art 8(a).

54 Id, art 8.

55 The Constitution, art 12.

56 Id, art 13.

57 Id, arts 19 and 21.

58 A Meyer Etude sur l'Aide Légale en République Démocratique du Congo [Study on legal aid in the Democratic Republic of Congo] (January 2014, Avocats Sans Frontières) at 17, available at: <https://www.asf.be/wp-content/uploads/2014/02/ASF_RDC_EAL_2013.pdf> (last accessed 10 February 2023).

59 Ibid.

60 Civil Procedure Code, art 146.

61 Fredman, S Discrimination Law (2011, Oxford University Press) at 2Google Scholar.

62 The victim has to be indigent and must hold a certificate from social affairs on their indigency, which they submit to the president of the High Court or the Court of Appeal (depending on the substantive issue). The head of the court will then select one from a number of advocates to plead the case pro bono. The advocate is supposed to be paid by the government, but rarely is. Consequently, the quality of legal assistance is poor. Furthermore, victims are still required to pay some procedural fees, even if they are indigent.

63 DRC Report, above at note 40 at 31, paras 119–22.

64 Ibid.

65 “RDC: Les victimes des crimes sexuels obtiennent rarement justice et jamais réparation: Changer la donne” [DRC: Victims of sexual crimes rarely get justice and never reparation: The need for a paradigm shift] (2013, Fédération Internationale des Droits de l'Homme) at 59–64, available at: <https://www.fidh.org/IMG/pdf/rapport_rdc.pdf> (last accessed 10 February 2023).

66 T Makunya “Violées oui, indemnisées non!” [Raped but not compensated] in Justice et Droit au Quotidien: Recueil des Articles Publiés dans le Cadre du Projet Contribuer à la Liberté d'Expression en RDC de 2011 à 2013 (2014, RCN Justice & Démocratie) at 109–10.

67 Criminal Procedure Code, art 129; and Civil Procédure Code, art 152; T Kibangula “Viols en RDC: Quand les victimes doivent ‘payer pour obtenir justice’” [Rape in DRC: When victims must ‘pay for justice’] (5 December 2013) JeuneAfrique, available at: <https://www.jeuneafrique.com/166930/politique/viols-en-rdc-quand-les-victimes-doivent-payer-pour-obtenir-justice/> (last accessed 10 February 2023).

68 Act 22/065 on Fundamental Principles on the Protection of Victims of Conflict Related Sexual Violence and Other Serious Crimes Against Peace and the Security of Humankind was promulgated on 26 December 2022. As stated in the preamble to the act, it aims, inter alia, to remove “all conditions related to legal fees and other formalities likely to impede or restrict the exercise and benefit of redress” by victims of sexual violence.

69 Although in para 120 of the DRC Report, the government argues that “it has recruited judges and established magistrates’ courts in all the provinces”, this approach raises a number of issues. First, some crimes cannot be tried by magistrates’ courts as they are beyond their jurisdiction. Secondly, the law provides that magistrates’ courts must be established in all the 27 cities and 145 territories. This has not been done. Thirdly, there are still too few magistrates, despite efforts to recruit 2,000 magistrates and prosecutors in 2010 and 2011.

70 69.24 per cent of Congolese people live in rural areas: DRC Report, above at note 40 at 44, para 208.

71 Within universities, student clubs have been created to disseminate knowledge about certain human rights, particularly those that affect women and girls.

72 DRC Report, above at note 40 at 31, paras 121–22.

73 Id at 31, para 119.

74 Maputo Protocol, art 9(1)(a).

75 Id, art 9(1)(b).

76 Id, art 9(1)(c).

77 The Constitution, art 14.

78 Many of the laws mentioned by the government are not effective on the ground. The 2004 Act on the Organisation and Functioning of Political Parties prohibits any discrimination based on gender; under art 3(5) of Act 08/005 of 10 June 2008 on Public Financing of Political Parties, parties are required to submit lists of candidates, taking account of parity between women and men, before they can be funded. Not only is this provision not implemented by the Electoral Commission, the law on Public Financing of Political Parties has never been enforced.

79 Act 17/013 of 24 December 2017 Amending and Complementing Act 06/006 of 9 March 2006 on the Organisation of Elections, art 13. A new amendment came into force in 2022 but leaves much to be desired with respect to incentives for women's political participation.

80 (Author's translation). Decision R Const 624/630/631 (Constitutional Court) of 30 March 2018. The original French reads: “La Cour considère que l'incise de l'article 13 visé au moyen trouve son explication non point dans une volonté de compromettre le principe de la promotion de la femme proclamé par le constituant, mais uniquement, d'une part dans le fait que l’égalité genre ne peut se concevoir ni en des termes arithmétiques, ni en une équation mathématique, s'agissant d'une égalité de chances entre l'homme et la femme, et d'autre part par le fait que l'engagement dans les partis politiques est libre, en sorte que le nombre de femmes et d'hommes effectivement engagés dans la vie des partis politiques est susceptible de variation d'un parti politique à un autre et ne peut être maitrisé en amont pour justifier l'irrecevabilité de toutes listes qui n'auraient pas prévu un nombre déterminé de sièges aux femmes.”

81 Kahombo, B “The Democratic Republic of the Congo's National Commission on Human Rights” in Fombad, CM (ed) Compendium of Documents on National Human Rights Institutions in Eastern and Southern Africa (2019, Pretoria University Law Press) 101 at 120Google Scholar.

82 Ngemba and Malchiodi Freins à la Participation, above at note 35 at 81 and 171.

83 Kangashe La Constitution Congolaise, above at note 34 at 75.

84 Testimony of a female political candidate during a political campaign session in Bukavu, 2016. See also Ngemba and Malchiodi Freins à la Participation, above at note 35 at 110.

85 “Rapport sur les violences contre les femmes au Nord et Sud-Kivu, en République Démocratique du Congo” [Report on violence against women in North and South Kivu, DRC] (2013) at 5, available at: <https://tbinternet.ohchr.org/Treaties/CEDAW/Shared%20Documents/COD/INT_CEDAW_NGO_COD_13432_F.pdf> (last accessed 28 April 2023).

86 JOM Yahisule Elections et Changement Politique en République Démocratique du Congo: Six Décennies Perdues pour le Développement [Elections and political change in the DRC: Six lost decades for development] (2021, L'Harmattan) at 309.

87 DRC Report, above at note 40 at 33–34, para 135.

88 Id at 44–45, para 208.

89 Yusuf, C and Fessha, Y “Female genital mutilation as a human rights issue: Examining the effectiveness of law against female genital mutilation in Tanzania” (2013) 13 African Human Rights Law Journal 356 at 367Google Scholar; Banda, F “Building a global movement: Violence against women in the African context” (2008) 8 African Human Rights Law Journal 1 at 12–14Google Scholar.

90 Maputo Protocol, preamble, para (g).

91 DRC Report, above at note 40 at 37, para 160.

92 “Avancées et obstacles dans la lutte contre l'impunité des violences sexuelles en République Démocratique du Congo” [Progress and obstacles in the fight against impunity for sexual violence in the DRC] (April 2014, UN Stabilization Mission in the DRC) at 12, available at: <https://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Countries/CD/UNJHROApril2014_fr.pdf> (last accessed 10 February 2023).

93 DRC Report, above at note 40 at 37, para 159.

94 Ibid.

95 Tunamsifu, SP “The right to justice: A challenge of survivors of conflict-related sexual violence in the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo” (2015) 15 African Human Rights Law Journal 473 at 475–81CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Kitharidis, S “Rape as a weapon of war: Combating sexual violence and impunity in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and the way forward” (2015) 15 African Human Rights Law Journal 449 at 451–64CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

96 Maputo Protocol, art 5(a).

97 DRC Report, above at note 40 at 37, para 158.

98 “Les violences domestiques à l’égard des femmes en République Démocratique du Congo: Un silence coupable” [Domestic violence against women in the DRC: A culpable silence] (May 2014, Femme au Fone) at 1, available at: <http://deboutcongolaises.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/violences_domestiques_rdc_-Rapport-FemmAuFone.pdf> (last accessed 10 February 2023).

99 DRC Report, above at note 40, para 175.

100 Ibid.

101 D Finkelhor and K Yllo “Rape in marriage: A sociological view” in D Finkelhor et al (eds) The Dark Side of Families: Current Family Violence Research 119 at 121.

102 Ibid.

103 “Les violences domestiques”, above at note 98 at 14.

104 “Congo: Un homme bat sa femme à mort après 2 ans de marriage” [Congo: Man beats wife to death after 2 years of marriage] (15 March 2018) koumpeu.com, available at: <https://koumpeu.com/congo-un-homme-bat-sa-femme-a-mort-apres-2-ans-de-mariage/> (last accessed 10 February 2023).

105 “Les violences domestiques”, above at note 98 at 14.

106 Act 06/018 of 20 July 2006 Modifying and Complementing Decree of 30 January 1940 Relating to the Criminal Code of DRC, art 170.

107 Act 06/019 of 20 July 2006 Modifying and Complementing Decree 06 August 1959 Relating to Criminal Procedure Act, preamble.

108 Act 06/018, above at note 106, art 174(e).

109 Id, art 174(i).

110 Id, art 174(k).

111 Id, art 174(d).

112 These acts are enumerated under the 2009 National Strategy on Combating Gender Based Violence by the Ministry of Gender, Family and the Child (November 2009) at 11–12, available at: <https://monusco.unmissions.org/sites/default/files/old_dnn/PlanNational.pdf> (last accessed 10 February 2023).

113 “Concluding observations and recommendations”, above at note 20 at 31.

114 DRC Report, above at note 40 at 39, para 175.

115 Id at 40, para 176.

116 “Lancement de la Stratégie de Lutte contre les Violences Basées sur le Genre en RDC” [Launch of the Strategy to Fight Gender-Based Violence in the DRC] (25 November 2009) reliefweb, available at: <https://reliefweb.int/report/democratic-republic-congo/lancement-de-la-stratégie-de-lutte-contre-les-violences-basées-sur> (last accessed 10 February 2023).

117 Ibid.

118 Adopted at the UNSC's 6195th session on 30 September 2009. See also UNSC res 1325, adopted at the UNSC's 4213th session on 31 October 2000; UNSC res 1820, adopted at the UNSC's 5916th session on 19 June 2008; and UNSC res 1889, adopted at the UNSC's 6196th session on 5 October 2009.

119 “Les violences domestiques”, above at note 98 at 9.

120 Ibid.

121 Maputo Protocol, art 14(2)(c).

122 General Comment No 2 on Article 14.1 (a), (b), (c) and (f) and Article 14. 2 (a) and (c) of the Protocol to the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights on the Rights of Women in Africa, preamble.

123 Id, para 63.

124 Id, para 37.

125 DRC Report, above at note 40 at 48, para 231.

126 Five to ten years imprisonment for the woman who aborts and five to 15 years for the person who encourages her to abort.

127 DRC Report, above at note 40 at 48, para 231.

128 Id at 48, para 232.

129 Ibid.

130 “Faut-il dépanaliser l'avortement en RDC” [Should abortion be decriminalized in DRC] (8 August 2015) Radio Okapi, available at: <https://www.radiookapi.net/emissions-2/parole-aux-auditeurs/2015/04/15/faut-il-depenaliser-lavortement-en-rdc> (last accessed 10 February 2023).

131 DRC Report, above at note 40 at 48, para 230.

132 Maputo Protocol, art 14(2)(c).

133 Kalonda, J “Sexual violence in Congo-Kinshasa: Necessity of decriminalizing abortion” (2012) 33 Revue Medicale de Bruxelles 482 at 482–86Google ScholarPubMed.

134 “Bukavu: Un foetus retrouvé sur Avenue Saïo dans la commune d'Ibanda” [Bukavu: A fetus found on Avenue Saïo in the commune of Ibanda] (30 August 2018) La Prunelle.

135 “Clandestine abortion is common in Kinshasa, and procedures are often unsafe” (Guttmacher Institute news release, 7 November 2017), available at: <https://www.guttmacher.org/news-release/2017/clandestine-abortion-common-kinshasa-and-procedures-are-often-unsafe> (last accessed 10 February 2023).

136 S Chae et al “The incidence of induced abortion in Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of Congo, 2016” (2 October 2017) Plos One, available at: <https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0184389> (last accessed 10 February 2023).

137 The Association of Congolese Women Lawyers is currently exerting pressure on the government to align domestic laws with the Maputo Protocol: Y Amekeya “RDC: Des femmes réclament à legaliser l'avortement” [DRC: Women call for legalized abortion] (5 September 2018) Africa Rdv, available at: <https://www.africardv.com/societe/rdc-des-femmes-reclament-a-legaliser-lavortement/> (last accessed 27 April 2023).

138 C Lewis “The making and re-making of the ‘rape capital of the world’: On colonial durabilities and the politics of sexual violence statistics in DRC” (2021) Critical African Studies 1 at 2–3.

139 “Concluding observations”, above at note 20, para 77(ii).

140 Id, para 77(iii).

141 Id, para 77(ii).