Hostname: page-component-7479d7b7d-8zxtt Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-07-10T19:31:15.678Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Democracy and Human Dignity: Limits of a Moralized Conception of Rights in German Constitutional Law

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  19 March 2012

Get access

Abstract

The Parliamentary Council, the constitutional assembly for the German Basic Law, split over the question whether the guarantee of human dignity should be understood as the result of a democratic decision or as the incorporation of a pre-existing universal principle of Christian origin. The subsequent constitutional practice was dominated by a moral understanding of the norm that stressed the contradiction between democracy and human dignity. This Article rejects this interpretation and attempts to show, using the exemplary German case, that a democracy-oriented interpretation of human dignity is not necessarily less effective than a moralized understanding.

Type
Articles
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press and The Faculty of Law, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem 2009

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1 Grundgesetz [German Basic Law].

2 For a critique of these traditions Maus, Ingeborg, Rechtstheorie und politische Theorie im Industriekapitalismus (1986)Google Scholar.

3 See Grundgesetz, supra note 1, art. 1.

4 The German doctrine of human dignity has been relatively influential for other jurisdictions and is relatively often referred to as exemplary: See McCrudden, Christopher, Human Dignity and Judicial Interpretation of Human Rights, 19 Eur. J. Int'l Law 655, 665 (2008)Google Scholar; Fletcher, George P., Human Dignity as a Constitutional Value, 22 U. W. Ontario L. Rev. 171, 178–82 (1984)Google Scholar; Benvenisti, Eyal, Human Dignity in Combat: The Duty to Spare Enemy Civilians, 39 Isr. L. Rev. 81, 84 (2006)Google Scholar. For a comparison with the U.S. that seems to underestimate the differences: Eberle, E. J., Dignity and Liberty: Constitutional Visions, in Germany and the United States 253–69 (2001)Google Scholar.

5 For an elegant and short description of the problem see Brest, Paul, Accommodation of the Majoritarianism and Rights of Human Dignity, 53 S. Cal. L. Rev. 761 (1979)Google Scholar.

6 Deutscher Bundestag und Bundesarchiv (Hrsg.): Der Parlamentarische Rat 1948-1949. Akten und Protokolle, Bd. 5 II (1993).

7 McCrudden, supra note 4, at 673.

8 In a discussion with Mordechai Kremnitzer, who remarked that he still finds it amazing how sure German constitutionalists are about the actual meaning of human dignity.

9 A remarkable philosophical exception was the philosopher Theodor W. Adorno who remained after the War deeply sceptical about the possibility to legalizing the “incommensurable” by including the doctrine of human dignity into human rights catalogues.

10 Nipperdey, Hans Carl, 2 Die Grundrechte. Handbuch der Theorie und Praxis der Grundrechte 1 (1954)Google Scholar.

11 To use Ronald Dworkin's expression, see Dworkin, Ronald, Rights as Trumps, in Theories of Rights 153–67 (Waldron, Jeremy ed., 1984)Google Scholar.

12 This is nothing new to the comparative scholar of human dignity jurisprudence see McCrudden supra note 4, at 710-12 and his reference to the idea of incompletely theorized arguments by Sunstein, Cass, Legal Reasoning and Political Conflict (1996)Google Scholar. It is remarkable, however, that the philosophical disagreement takes place even within one national jurisdiction.

13 For the theological background after the war: Vögele, Wolfgang, Menschenwürde Zwischen Recht und Theologie (2003)Google Scholar. A critical assesment that stresses the differences: Menschenwurde in der Säkularen Verfassungsordnung (Bahr, P. & Heinig, M. eds., 2006)Google Scholar.

14 Universal Declaration of Human Rights, G.A. Res. 217A (III), U.N. Doc A/810 at 71 (1948) [hereinafter UDHR].

15 McCrudden, supra note 4, at 677.

16 For the discussions in the Parliamentary Council see Cremer, Wolfram, Freiheitsgrundrechte 235 ff. (2003)Google Scholar; Enders, Christoph, Die Menschenwürde in der Verfassungsordnung 25–30, 404–16 (1997)Google Scholar.

17 Caldwell, Peter C., Popular Sovereignty and the Crisis of German Constitutional Law (1997)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

18 Süsterhenn, Adolf, in Der Parlamentarische Rat 19481949. Akten und Protokolle, vol. 9, Dokument Nr. 2, 67, Plenum, Munich (1996)Google Scholar.

19 Der Parlamentarische Rat Nr. 5, 65 (v. Mangoldt). For a new perspective on this interpretation of National Socialism: Wittreck, Fabian, Nationalsozialistische Rechtslehre und Naturrecht: Affinität und Aversion (2008)Google Scholar.

20 Kelsen, Hans, Vom Wesen und Wert der Demokratie (2d ed. 1927)Google Scholar.

21 Der Parlamentarische Rat, 70 (Schmid), similar 67.

22 Kunze, Rolf-Ulrich, Reconsidered–Der Mensch ist nicht für den Staat, sondern der Staat ist für den Menschen da, 40 Der Staat 383404 (2001)Google Scholar.

23 McCrudden, supra note 4, at 664-65.

24 For a comparative approach that demonstrates the specific continental concept of dignity see Whitman, James Q., ‘Human Dignity’ in Europe and the United States: the Social Foundations, in European and US Constitutionalism 108 (Nolte, Georg ed., 2005)CrossRefGoogle Scholar. For a seminal overview about history and comparative jurisprudence of human dignity now see McCrudden, supra note 4, passim.

25 For comparative approaches see The Concept of Human Dignity in Human Rights Discourse (Kretzmer, David & Klein, Eckart eds., 2002)Google Scholar; McCrudden supra note 4.

26 The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (Eide, Asbjorn & Alfredsson, Gudmundar eds., 1992)Google Scholar.

27 von Mangoldt, Hermann, Das Bonner Grundgesetz Art. 1, 4244 (1953)Google Scholar. For the pre-history cf. Eckert, Joern, Legal Roots of Human Dignity in German Law, in The Concept of Human Dignity in Human Rights Discourse, supra note 25, at 41Google Scholar.

28 Maunz, Theodor & Dürig, Günter, Grundgesetz, Art. 1 (Erstbearb., , o.J.)Google Scholar; Dürig, Günter, Der Grundrechtssatz von der Menschenwürde, 81 Archiv des Öffentlichen Rechts 117–57 (1956)Google Scholar.

29 von der Pfordten, Dietmar, Zur Würde des Menschen bei Kant, in 14 Jahrbuch für Recht und Ethik [Annual Review of Law and Ethics] 502 (2006)Google Scholar.

30 It is today almost uncontested that all basic rights can be abridged by a democratic and proportional statute, even those that do not have an explicit constitutional reservation for that, for a modern critique: Lenz, Sebastian, Vorbehaltlose Freiheitsrechte (2007)Google Scholar.

31 For a doctrinal critique see Augsberg, Ino & Augsberg, Steffen, Kombinationsgrundrechte, 132 Archiv des Öffentlichen Rechts 540 (2007)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

32 Lerche, Peter, Verfassungsrechtliche Aspekte der Gentechnologie, Rechtsfragender Gentechnologie 88, 100 (Lukes, Rudolf & Scholz, Rupert eds., 1986)Google Scholar.

33 For this aspect Reimann, Matthias, Prurient Interest and Human Dignity: Pornography Regulation in West Germany and in the United states, 21 U. Mich. J. L. Reform 201 (1987)Google Scholar.

34 BVerwGE 113, 187; BVerfGE 113, 340 (342-43).

35 BVerfGE 30, 1 (25-26 u. 39 ff.); BVerfGE 96, 375 (399).

36 For a theoretical justification of the dominant jurisprudence see Alexy, Robert, A Theory of Constitutional Rights (2002)Google Scholar. For a critique of the omnipresence of balancing of two influential constitutional judges who were not able to thoroughly chance the jurisprudence see Böckenförde, Ernst-Wolfgang, Schutzbereich, Eingriff, Verfassungsimmanente Schranken, 42 Der Staat 165 (2003)Google Scholar; Hoffmann-Riem, Wolfgang, Grundrechtsanspruch unter Rationalitätsanspruch, 43 Der Staat 203 (2004)Google Scholar.

37 The most important point in case is the protection of an absolute core of privacy that is constructed by the court with regard to human dignity and other rights. This allegedly absolute protection allows the police to get to how communication in order to determine if it is violating the rights of a person. BVerfGE 109, 279.

38 Basic Law: Human Dignity and Liberty, arts, 1.2, & 4, 1992, S.H. 150, amended 1994 S.H. 90. An English translation of the law is available at http://www.knesset.gov.i1/laws/special/eng/basic3_eng.htm.

39 Since BVerfGE 6, 32.

40 Since BVerfGE 35, 202.

41 BVerfGE 30, 173 (194).

42 See infra notes 76 & 94.

43 See Kersten, Jens, Das Klonen von Menschen (2004)Google Scholar (providing a comparative overview).

44 BVerfGE 4, 7 (15-16).

45 The rather communitarian of the German understanding of human dignity has been remarked by comparative observers: Fletcher, supra note 4, at 178-82; McCrudden supra note 4, at 699-700.

46 Enders, Christoph, Die Menschenwürde in Der Verfassungsordnung 189 ff. (1997)Google Scholar.

47 This is especially true with regard to the so called “object formula” Do not treat a subject as a mere object. The confusion of legal and moral philosophy is remarked on by Fletcher, supra note 4, at 176-77.

48 Habermas, Jürgen, Between Facts and Norms ch. 4 (1994)Google Scholar.

49 For a convincing critique of Habermas in this regard: Lieber, Tobias, Diskursive Vernunft und formelle Gleichheit (2007)Google Scholar.

50 Kant, Immanuel, Metaphysik der Sitten, (1797) 237 (**Akademie-Ausgabe, vol. VI (1968))Google Scholar.

51 Kant, Immanuel, Metaphysische Anfangsgründe der Rechtslehre, 313 ff (1797)Google Scholar (**Ausgabe der Preußischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, vol. VI, 1902).

52 Arendt, Hannah, Es gibt nur ein einziges Menschenrecht, Die Wandlung 754, 760 (1949)Google Scholar.

53 Thanks to an anonymous reviewer for asking me to clarify this point.

54 This is the core of the argument in the theory of judicial review see Ely, John H., Democracy and Distrust (1981)Google Scholar; see also Troper, Michel, The Logic of Justification of Judicial Review 1 Int'l Const. L. 99 (2003)Google Scholar; Möllers, Christoph, Die Drei Gewalten 136–40 (2007)Google Scholar.

55 Evans, Richard, The Coming of the Third Reich 339–49 (2004)Google Scholar.

56 Möllers, Christoph, Pouvoir Constituant—Constitution—Constitutionnalisation, in Principles of European Constitutional Law 183, 186–88 (von Bogdandy, Armin ed., 2006)Google Scholar

57 This problem of constitutional review is well discussed in Sunstein, Cass R., One Case at a Time (1999)Google Scholar.

58 Lerche, Peter, Facetten der ‘Konkretisierung’ von Verfassungsrecht, in Ausgewählte Abhandlungen 86–104, 102 ff. (Scholz, Rupert et al. eds., 2004)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Jestaedt, Matthias, Grundrechtsentfaltung im Gesetz 29 ff, 359 ff (1999)Google Scholar; Bumke, Christian, Der Grundrechtsvorbehalt 238 (1998)Google Scholar.

59 Lerche, supra note 32, at 100.

60 Hofmann, Hasso, Die versprochene Menschenwürde, 118 Archiv des Öffentlichen Rechts 353, 365 ff (1993)Google Scholar.

61 BVerfGE 88, 103.

62 Grundgesetz, supra note 1, art. 26.

63 For a different argument in which the (international) legal classification of human dignity is made dependent from the democratic organization of the concerned states: Mirsky, Yehudah, Human Rights, Democracy, and the Inescapability of Politics: or, Human Dignity Thick and Thin, 38 Isr. L. Rev. 358 (2005)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

64 Pretty v. United Kmgdom, App. No. 2346/02, 2002-III Eur. Ct. H.R. (Apr. 29, 2002); Mayzit v. Russia, App. No. 63378/00, Eur. Ct. H.R. (Jan, 20, 2005); Case 377/98, The Netherlands v. European Parliament and Council of the European Union, 2001 E.C.R. 1-07079; Case 36/02 Omega Spielhalle- und Automatenaufstellungs-GmbH v. Oberbürgermeisterin der Bundesstadt Bonn, 2004 E.C.R. I-9609.

65 Case 36/02 Omega Spielhalle- und Automatenaufstellungs-GmbH v Oberbürgemeisterin der Bundesstadt Bonn, 2004 E.C.R. I-9609.

66 Hofmann, Hasso, Die versprochene Menschenwürde, 118 Archiv des Öffentlichen Rechts 353–77 (1993)Google Scholar. For the idea of a promise as the starting point of a political community see Arendt, Hannah, The Human Condition ch. 5/34 (1958)Google Scholar.

67 For a more refined argument see Möllers, supra note 54, at 85 ff.

68 und Arndt Pollmann, Christoph Menke, Philosophie der Menschenrechte 59 ff. (2007)Google Scholar.

69 See supra notes 50 & 51.

70 Article 1(3) talks of the “following” basic rights; thus placing human rights in a separate category.

71 von der Pfordten, Dietmar, Normativer Individualismus versus normativer Kollektivismus in der Politischen Philosophie der Neuzeit, in 54 Zeitschrift für Philosophische Forschung 491 (2000)Google Scholar.

72 Agamben, Giorgio, Homo Sacer Souvereign Power and Bare Life 71 ff, 126 ff. (1998)Google Scholar.

73 McDowell, John, Mind and World 8488 (1996)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

74 Honneth, Axel, The Struggle for Recognition: The Moral Grammar of Social Conflicts (1996)Google Scholar.

75 Heuschling, Luc, de droit, Etat, Rechtsstaat [Rule of Law] (2002)Google Scholar.

76 Which has unfortunately become a contested issue in German constitutional doctrine see Rückkehr der Folter (Gerhard Beestermöller & Hauke Brunkhorst eds., 2006).

77 Infra notes 96-99.

78 BVerfGE 27, 1(6); BVerfGE 45, 187 (228); BVerfGE 96, 375 (399); BVerfGE 115, 118 (153).

79 BVerfGE 115, 118.

80 Arendt, Hannah, Es gibt nur ein einziges Menschenrecht, Die Wandlung 754, 760 (1949)Google Scholar.

81 This interpretation can be found in Enders, supra note 16, at 501-10.

82 Forst, Rainer, Das Recht auf Rechtfertigung 391–27 (2007)Google Scholar.

83 Möllers, Christoph, Die drei Gewalten ch. 2, II (2008)Google Scholar.

84 BVerfGE 30, 1.

85 See supra note 25.

86 Dürig, Günter, Zur Bedeutung und Tragweite des art. 79 Abs. III GG, in Festgabe für Theodor Maunz (Spanner, Hans et al. eds., 1971)Google Scholar.

87 The development of jus cogens standards in public law is veers towards the same direction, see, e.g., Ley, Isabelle, Legal Protection against the UN-Security Council between European and International Law: A Kafkaesque Situation?, 8 Ger. L. J. 3 (Mar. 2007)Google Scholar.

88 Starck, Christian, in Das Bonner, 1 Kommentar zum Grundgesetz art. 1/19 (Mangoldt, v., Klein, Eckart, Starck, Christian, 5th ed. 2005)Google Scholar.

89 Neumann, Ulfried, Die Tyrannei der Würde, 84 Archiv für Rechts- und Sozialphilosophie, 153–66 (1998)Google Scholar.

90 Libet, Benjamin, Do We Have Free Will?, in Oxford Handbook of Free Will 551–64 (Kane, R. ed., 2002)Google Scholar.

91 Fraser, Nancy & Honneth, Axel, Redistribution or Recognition? A Political-Philosophical Exchange (2003)Google Scholar.

92 See, e.g. Rorty, Richard, Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature (1979)Google Scholar.

93 BVerfGE 39, 1; BverfGE 88, 203.

94 Brugger, Winfried, Darf der Staat ausnahmsweise foltern?, in 35 Der Staat 67 (1996)Google Scholar; Wittreck, Fabian, Menschenwürde und Folterverbot. Zum Dogma von der ausnahmslosen Unabwägbarkeit des Art. 1 Abs. 1 GG, in Die Öffentliche Verwaltung 873 (2003)Google Scholar.

95 Supra notes 84 & 86.

96 BVerwGE 115, 189.

97 BVerwGE 64, 274.

98 BVerwGE 117, 340.

99 Administrative Court Neustadt, Neue Zeitschrift für Verwaltungsrecht 98 (1993)Google Scholar.