Hostname: page-component-76fb5796d-45l2p Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-27T11:12:43.797Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

International norm polarization: sexuality as a subject of human rights protection

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  09 February 2015

Jonathan Symons  and
Dennis Altman
Jonathan Symons*
Affiliation:
Department of Modern History, Politics and International Relations, Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia
Dennis Altman*
Affiliation:
School of Social Sciences, La Trobe University, Melbourne, Australia
*
E-mail: jonathan.symons@mq.edu.au, d.altman@latrobe.edu.au
E-mail: jonathan.symons@mq.edu.au, d.altman@latrobe.edu.au
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

International norm polarization is a rare but recurring process within international norm dynamics. Polarization describes the most combative response to attempted norm change: ‘a candidate norm is accepted by some states but resisted by others, leading to a period of international disputation between two groups in which socializing pressures pull states toward compliance with rival norms’. We identify several cases of polarization and explain this phenomenon by elaborating the constructivist model of the norm life cycle to processes of international resistance to norm change as well as to norm acceptance. We also draw on social identity theory (SIT) to examine group-psychological responses where disputed norms become closely linked to state identity. We illustrate these dynamics with reference to conflict over the norm that recognizes sexual orientation and gender identity as subjects of international human rights protection. Over the past decade this candidate norm has become increasingly contentious internationally, and bitter debates over resolutions concerning extra-judicial killings and discrimination have divided the United Nations General Assembly and Human Rights Council. The article makes a primary contribution to analysis of international norm change and also contributes to an emerging literature concerning sexuality and international relations.

Keywords

polarizationhuman rightshomosexualitysocial identity theoryconstructivismwhaling
Type
Original Papers
Information
International Theory , Volume 7 , Issue 1 , March 2015 , pp. 61 - 95
Copyright
© Cambridge University Press 2015 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Abramowitz, Alan, and Kyle, Saunders. 2008. “Is Polarization a Myth?” The Journal of Politics 70(2):542–555.Google Scholar
Abrams, Dominic, and Michael, Hogg, eds. 1990. Social Identity Theory: Constructive and Critical Advances. Hemel Hempstead: Harvester Wheatsheaf.Google Scholar
Acharya, Amitav. 2004. “How Ideas Spread: Whose Norms Matter? Norm Localization and Institutional Change in Asian Regionalism.” International Organization 58(2):239–275.Google Scholar
Acharya, Amitav 2011. “Norm Subsidiarity and Regional Orders: Sovereignty, Regionalism, and Rule-Making in the Third World.” International Studies Quarterly 55(1):95–123.Google Scholar
Adams, Vincanne, and Pigg, Stacy, eds. 2005. Sex in Development: Science, Sexuality, and Morality in Global Perspective. Durham: Duke University Press.Google Scholar
African, Caribbean and Pacific Group of States. 2010. “Declaration of the 21st Session of the ACP Parliamentary Assembly on the Peaceful Co-Existence of Religions and the Importance given to the Phenomenon of Homosexuality in the ACP-EU Partnership.” African, Caribbean and Pacific Group of States, October 20. Accessed April 22, 2014. http://www.lgbt-ep.eu/wp-content/uploads/2010/11/20100928-ACP-unilateral-declaration-on-inter-religious-peace-and-homosexuality.pdf.Google Scholar
Alekseyev v. Russia, no. 4916/07, 25924/08 and 14599/09, October 21. Accessed April 23, 2014. http://archive.equal-jus.eu/290/.Google Scholar
Altman, Dennis. 2000. “The Emergence of ‘Modern’ Gay Identities and the Question of Human Rights.” In Human Rights and Gender Politics, edited by Anne-Marie Hilsdon, Martha Macintyre, Vera Mackie, and Maila Stivens, 211–212. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Altman, Dennis 2001. Global Sex. Chicago: Chicago University Press.Google Scholar
Altman, Dennis 2008. “AIDS and the Globalisation of Sexuality.” Social Identities 14(2):145–160.Google Scholar
Altman, Dennis, Aggleton, Peter, Williams, Michael, Kong, Travis, Reddy, Vasu, Harrad, David, Ries, Toni, and Parker, Richard. 2012. “Men Who Have Sex With Men: Stigma and Discrimination.” Lancet 380(9839):439–445.Google Scholar
Amnesty International. 2010. “Turkey: Activist Group will not be Closed for ‘Violating Turkish Moral Values.” April 30. Accessed April 23, 2014. http://www.amnesty.org/en/library/asset/EUR44/009/2010/en/b618d414-2fe0-4d3b-a730-0e3f07583f03/eur440092010en.html.Google Scholar
Ayoub, Phillip M. 2014. “With Arms Wide Shut: Threat Perception, Norm Reception and Mobilized Resistance to LGBT Rights.” Journal of Human Rights 13(3):337–362.Google Scholar
Bailey, Jennifer. 2008. “Arrested Development: The Fight to End Commercial Whaling as a Case of Failed Norm Change.” European Journal of International Relations 14(2):289–318.Google Scholar
Obama, Barak. 2010. “Presidential Proclamation – Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender Pride Month.” The White House, May 28. Accessed April 22, 2014. http://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/presidential-proclamation-lesbian-gay-bisexual-and-transgender-pride-month.Google Scholar
Barroso, Carmen. 2010. “From Reproductive to Sexual Rights.” In Routledge Handbook of Sexuality, Health & Rights, edited by Peter Aggleton, and Richard Parker, 379–388. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Barth, Fredrik, ed. 1969. Ethnic Groups and Boundaries. Boston: Little, Brown and Company.Google Scholar
Bawer, Bruce. 2006. While Europe Slept: How Radical Islam is Destroying the West from Within. New York: Broadway Books.Google Scholar
BBC News. 2011a. “Ghana Refuses to Grant Gays’ Rights Despite Aid Threat.” BBC News, November 2. Accessed April 23, 2014. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-15558769.Google Scholar
BBC News 2011b. “Uganda Fury at David Cameron Aid Threat over Gay Rights.” BBC News, October 31. Accessed April 23, 2014. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-15524013.Google Scholar
Bellamy, Alex. 2010. “The Responsibility to Protect – Five Years on.” Ethics and International Affairs 24(2):143–169.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bielefeldt, Heiner. 2000. “Western’ versus ‘Islamic’ Human Rights Conceptions?: A Critique of Cultural Essentialism in the Discussion on Human Rights.” Political Theory 28(1):90–121.Google Scholar
Björkdahl, Annika. 2002. “Norms in International Relations: Some Conceptual and Methodological Reflections.” Cambridge Review of International Affairs 15(1):9–23.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Block, Ray, and Siegel, David. 2011. “Identity, Bargaining and Third-Party Mediation.” International Theory 3(3):416–449.Google Scholar
Blok, Anders. 2008. “Contesting Global Norms: Politics of Identity in Japanese Pro-Whaling Countermobilization.” Global Environmental Politics 8(2):39–66.Google Scholar
Boellstorff, Tom. 2004. “The Emergence of Political Homophobia in Indonesia: Masculinity and National Belonging.” Ethnos 69(4):465–486.Google Scholar
Bosia, Michael J., and Weiss, Meredith. 2013. “Political Homophobia in Comparative Perspective.” In Global Homophobia: States, Movements, and the Politics of Oppression, edited by Meredith Weiss, and Michael J. Bosia, 1–29. Urbana: University of Illinois Press.Google Scholar
Boucher, Richard. 2003. “Daily Press Briefing.” April 25. Accessed April 22, 2014. http://2001-2009.state.gov/r/pa/prs/dpb/2003/19959.htm.Google Scholar
Boyle, Elizabeth, and Preves, Sharon. 2000. “National Politics as International Process: The Case of Anti-Female-Genital-Cutting Laws.” Law and Society Review 34(3):703–737.Google Scholar
Brysk, Alison. 2013. “Changing Hearts and Minds: Sexual Politics and Human Rights.” In The Persistent Power of Human Rights: From Commitment to Compliance, edited by Thomas Risse, Stephen Ropp, and Kathryn Sikkink, 259–274. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Burke, Roland. 2010. Decolonization and the Evolution of International Human Rights. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania.Google Scholar
Buruma, Ian. 2009. “Parade’s End.” New Yorker, December 7: 36–41.Google Scholar
Buzan, Barry, Wæver, Ole, and de Wilde, Jaap. 1998. Security: A New Framework for Analysis. Boulder: Lynne Rienner.Google Scholar
Catalinac, Amy, and Chan, Gerald. 2005. “Japan, the West, and the Whaling Issue: Understanding the Japanese Side.” Japan Forum 17(1):133–163.Google Scholar
Chanika, Emmie, Lwanda, John, and Muula, Adamson. 2013. “Gender, Gays and Gain: The Sexualised Politics of Donor Aid in Malawi.” Africa Spectrum 48(1):89–105.Google Scholar
Checkel, Jeffrey. 1998. “The Constructivist Turn in International Relations Theory.” World Politics 50(2):324–348.Google Scholar
Correa, Sonia, Petchevsky, Rosalind, and Parker, Richard. 2008. Sexuality Health and Human Rights. New York: Routledge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cortell, Andrew P., and Davis, James W.. 1996. “How Do International Institutions Matter? The Domestic Impact of International Rules and Norms.” International Studies Quarterly 40(4):451–478.Google Scholar
Cox, Robert W. 1977. “Labor and Hegemony.” International Organization 31(3):385–424.Google Scholar
Creppell, Ingrid. 2011. “The Concept of Normative Threat.” International Theory 3(3):450–487.Google Scholar
Crocker, Jennifer, and Riia, Luhtanen. 1990. “Collective Self-Esteem and in-Group Bias.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 58:60–67.Google Scholar
Cronin, Bruce. 1999. Community Under Anarchy: Transnational Identity and the Evolution of Cooperation. New York: Columbia University Press.Google Scholar
Davies, Sara E. 2006. “The Asian Rejection?: International Refugee Law in Asia.” Australian Journal of Politics and History 52(4):562–575.Google Scholar
DeSombre, Elizabeth. 2000. Domestic Sources of International Environmental Policy: Industry, Environmentalists, and U.S. Power. Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press.Google Scholar
DuBois, Ellen Carol. 1998. Woman Suffrage and Women’s Rights. New York: New York University Press.Google Scholar
Epprecht, Marc. 2005. “Black Skin, ‘Cowboy’ Masculinity: A Genealogy of Homophobia in the African Nationalist Movement in Zimbabwe to 1983.” Culture, Health & Sexuality 7(3):253–266.Google Scholar
Epstein, Charlotte. 2006. “The Making of Global Environmental Norms: Endangered Species Protection.” Global Environmental Politics 6(2):32–54.Google Scholar
Epstein, Charlotte 2011. “Who Speaks? Discourse, the Subject and the Study of Identity in international Politics.” European Journal of International Relations 717(2):327–350.Google Scholar
European Parliament. 2010. “Resolution RC-B7-0693/2010.” European Parliament, December 15. Accessed April 22, 2014. http://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.do?pubRef=-//EP//TEXT+TA+P7-TA-2010-0482+0+DOC+XML+V0//EN.Google Scholar
European Parliament Intergroup on GLBT Rights. 2010. “Press Release: European Commission Signs Trade Deal with Countries Jailing and Killing Homosexuals.” European Parliament Intergroup on GLBT Rights, March 22. Accessed April 22, 2014. http://www.lgbt-ep.eu/press-releases/european-commission-signs-trade-deal-with-countries-jailing-and-killing-homosexuals/.Google Scholar
Falkner, Robert. 2007. “The Political Economy of ‘Normative Power’ Europe: EU Environmental Leadership in International Biotechnology Regulation.” Journal of European Public Policy 14(4):507–526.Google Scholar
Fearon, James D. 1994. “Domestic Political Audiences and the Escalation of International Disputes.” American Political Science Review 88(3):577–592.Google Scholar
Finnemore, Martha, and Sikkink, Kathryn. 1998. “International Norm Dynamics and Political Change.” International Organization 52(4):887–917.Google Scholar
Flockhart, Trine. 2006. “‘Complex Socialization’: A Framework for the Study of State Socialization.” European Journal of International Relations 12(1):89–118.Google Scholar
Flowers, Petrice. 2009. Refugees Women and Weapons. Stanford: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Girard, Francoise. 2004. “Global Implications of US Domestic and International Policies on Sexuality.” Working Paper No. 1, International Working Group on Sexuality and Social Policy, New York. June.Google Scholar
Goldgeier, James, and Tetlock, Philip. 2001. “Psychology and International Relations Theory.” Annual Review of Political Science 4:67–92.Google Scholar
Graupner, Helmut, and Phillip, Tahmindjis. 2005. Sexuality and Human Rights. Binghamton: Harrington Park Press.Google Scholar
Greenhill, Brian. 2008. “Recognition and Collective Identity Formation in International Politics.” European Journal of International Relations 14(2):343–368.Google Scholar
Gries, Peter Hays. 2005. “Social Psychology and the Identity-Conflict Debate: Is a ‘China Threat’ Inevitable?” European Journal of International Relations 11(2):235–265.Google Scholar
Gruskin, Sofia. 2000. “The Conceptual and Practical Implications of Reproductive and Sexual Rights: How Far Have We Come?” Health and Human Rights 4(2):1–6.Google Scholar
Hacker, Jacob, and Pierson, Paul. 2005. Off Center: The Republican Revolution and the Erosion of American Democracy. New Haven: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Hadler, Markus. 2012. “The Influence of World Societal Forces on Social Tolerance.” The Sociological Quarterly 53(2):211–237.Google Scholar
Haritaworn, Jin. 2010. “Queer Injuries: The Racial Politics of ‘Homophobic Hate Crime’ in Germany.” Social Justice 37(1):69–88.Google Scholar
Harrington, Carol. 2010. Politicization of Sexual Violence. London: Ashgate.Google Scholar
Hart, P. Sol, and Nisbet, Erik C.. 2012. “Boomerang Effects in Science Communication: How Motivated Reasoning and Identity Cues Amplify Opinion Polarization About Climate Mitigation Policies.” Communication Research 39(6):701–723.Google Scholar
Hayes, Jarrod. 2012. “Securitization, Social Identity and Democratic Security: Nixon, India and the Ties That Bind.” International Organization 66(1):63–93.Google Scholar
Helfer, Laurence. 2002. “Overlegalizing Human Rights: International Relations Theory and the Commonwealth Caribbean Backlash Against Human Rights Regimes.” Columbia Law Review 102(7):1832–1839.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clinton, Hillary. 2011. “Remarks in Recognition of International Human Rights Day.” US Department of State, December 6. Accessed April 22, 2014. http://m.state.gov/md178368.htm.Google Scholar
Hirata, Keiko. 2004. “Beached Whales: Examining Japan’s Rejection of an International Norm.” Social Science Japan Journal 7(2):177–197.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Horvath, Robert. 2014. “The Reinvention of ‘Traditional Values’: Nataliya Narochnitskaya and Russia’s Assault on Universal Human Rights” manuscript under review.Google Scholar
Howard, Judith. 2001. “A Sociological Framework of Cognition In Self and Society, edited by Judith Howard, and Peter Callero, 97–120. Malden: Blackwell.Google Scholar
Huffington Post. 2013. “Obama Defends Gay Rights, Has ‘No Patience’ For Russia On Discrimination.” Huffington Post, August 6. Accessed April 22, 2014. http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/08/06/obama-gay-rights-russia_n_3716787.html?ir=Gay+Voices&ref=topbar.Google Scholar
Human Rights Council. 2009. “Promoting Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms through a Better Understand of Traditional Values of Mankind.” A/HRC/12/L.13/Rev.1. September 30. Accessed April 23, 2014. http://daccess-dds-ny.un.org/doc/RESOLUTION/GEN/G12/173/96/PDF/G1217396.pdf?OpenElement.Google Scholar
Human Rights Council 2012. “Promoting Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms through a Better Understanding of Traditional Values of Humankind.” A/HRC/21/L.2 21. September 21. Accessed April 23, 2014. ap.ohchr.org/documents/E/HRC/d_res_dec/A_HRC_21_L2.doc.Google Scholar
Human Rights Monitor Quarterly. 2011. “International Service For Human Rights.” Human Rights Monitor Quarterly, 1, January 4. www.ishr.ch/quarterly. Accessed April 22, 2014.Google Scholar
Human Rights Watch. 2003. More Than a Name: State-Sponsored Homophobia and its Consequences in Southern Africa. 2866. South Africa: Human Rights Watch. Accessed April 22, 2014. http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/3f4f59710.html.Google Scholar
Human Rights Watch 2004. In a Time of Torture: The Assault on Justice in Egypt’s Crackdown on Homosexual Conduct. South Africa: Human Rights Watch. Accessed April 22, 2014. http://hrw.org/reports/2004/egypt0304/.Google Scholar
Hurd, Ian. 2012. “Almost Saving Whales: The Ambiguity of Success at the International Whaling Commission.” Ethics & International Affairs 26(1):103–112.Google Scholar
International Service for Human Rights. 2010. “GA Third Committee Deletes ‘Sexual Orientation’ from Resolution on Extrajudicial Executions.” International Service for Human Rights, November 22. Accessed April 23, 2014. http://archive.today/4wUv.Google Scholar
International Service for Human Rights 2011a. “GA Restores Sexual Orientation into EJEs Resolution, Adopts Key Texts on Death Penalty, Iran, DPRK.” International Service for Human Rights, March 23. Accessed April 23, 2014. http://www.ishr.ch/general-assembly/983-ga-reintroduces-sexual-orientation-reference-into-ejes-resolution-adopts-key-texts-on-death-penalty.Google Scholar
International Service for Human Rights 2011b. “Ground-Breaking Statement on Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity by Record Number of 85 States.” International Service for Human Rights, March 24. Accessed April 23, 2014. http://www.ishr.ch/news/ground-breaking-statement-sexual-orientation-and-gender-identity-record-number-85-states.Google Scholar
Kayal, Sonia. 2002. “Exporting Identity.” Yale Journal of Law & Feminism 14(1):98–176.Google Scholar
Keck, Margaret, and Sikkink, Kathryn. 1998. Activists Beyond Borders: Advocacy Networks in International Politics. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
Klotz, Audie. 1999. Norms in International Relations: The Struggle Against Apartheid. New York: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
Kollman, Kelly. 2007. “Same-Sex Unions: The Globalization of an Idea.” International Studies Quarterly 51(2):329–357.Google Scholar
Lau, Holning. 2004. “Sexual Orientation: Testing the Universality of International Human Rights Law.” University Chicago Law Review 71(4):1689–1720.Google Scholar
LaViolette, Nicole, and Whitworth, Sandra. 1994. “No Safe Haven: Sexuality as a Universal Human Right and Gay and lesbian Activism in International Politics.” Millenium 23(3):563–588.Google Scholar
Lindsay, D. Michael. 2007. Faith in the Halls of Power. New York: Oxford UP.Google Scholar
Long, Scott. 2005. “Anatomy of a Backlash: Sexuality and the ‘Cultural’ War on Human Rights.” World Report, Human Rights Watch, South Africa. Accessed April 22, 2014. http://hrw.org/wr2k5/anatomy/anatomy.pdf.Google Scholar
Mbuthia, Richard. 2011. “Tanzania: Africa, Want Aid? Recognise Gay Rights!” Tanzania Daily News. December 26. Accessed April 22, 2014. http://allafrica.com/stories/201112271071.html.Google Scholar
McCright, Aaron, and Dunlap, Riley. 2011. “The Politicization of Climate Change and Polarization in the American Public’s Views of Global Warming, 2001–2010.” Sociological Quarterly 52(2):155–194.Google Scholar
Mepschen, Paul, Duyvendak, Jan Willem, and Tonkens, Evelien H.. 2010. “Sexual Politics, Orientalism and Multicultural Citizenship in the Netherlands.” Sociology 44(5):962–979.Google Scholar
Mercer, Jonathan. 1995. “Anarchy and Identity.” International Organization 49(2):251–276.Google Scholar
Morgan, Wayne. 2001. “Queering International Human Rights Law.” In Law and Sexuality in the Global Arena, edited by Carl Stychin, and Didi Herman, 208–225. Minnesota: University of Minnesota Press.Google Scholar
Muldoon, James. 1979. Popes Lawyers, and Infidel. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.Google Scholar
Myers, David, and Lamm, Helmut. 1976. “The Group Polarization Phenomenon.” Psychological Bulletin 83(4):602–627.Google Scholar
Neumann, Iver. 1999. Uses of the Other: The ‘East’ in European Identity Formation. Manchester: Manchester University Press.Google Scholar
Nussbaum, Martha. C. 2010. From Disgust to Humanity: Sexual Orientation and Constitutional Law. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Otto, Dianne. 1997. “Rethinking the Universality of Human Rights Law.” Columbia Human Rights Law Review 29:1–46.Google Scholar
Pakistan Today. 2012. “Muslim Envoys Walk Out in Protest from UN Gay Rights Debate.” Pakistan Today, March 8. Accessed April 23, 2014. http://www.pakistantoday.com.pk/2012/03/08/news/national/muslim-envoys-walk-out-in-protest-from-un-gay-rights-debate/.Google Scholar
Pakistan Voice. 2011. “Controversy over US Support for LGBT in Pakistan deepens.” Pakistan Voice, July 15. asiancorrespondent.com.Google Scholar
Panke, Diana, and Petersohn, Ulrich. 2012. “Why International Norms Disappear Sometimes.” European Journal of International Relations 18(4):719–742.Google Scholar
Parpart, Jane, and Zalewski, Marysia. 2008. Rethinking the Man Question. London: Zed Books.Google Scholar
People for the American Way. 2014. “Globalizing Homophobia: How the American Right Supports and Defends Russia’s Anti-Gay Crackdown.” People for the American Way, February 10. Accessed April 22, 2014. http://www.pfaw.org/rww-in-focus/globalizing-homophobia-how-american-right-supports-and-defends-russia-s-anti-gay-crackd.Google Scholar
Pew Research Global Attitudes Project. 2013. “The Global Divide on Homosexuality.” Pew Research Global Attitudes Project, June 4. Accessed April 23, 2014. http://www.pewglobal.org/2013/06/04/the-global-divide-on-homosexuality/.Google Scholar
Pillay, Navi. 2011. “Report of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights: Discriminatory Laws and Practices and Acts of Violence Against Individuals Based on their Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity.” A/HRC/19/41. November 17. Accessed April 22, 2014. http://globalequality.files.wordpress.com/2011/12/a-hrc-19-41_english.pdf.Google Scholar
Puar, Jasbir K. 2007. Terrorist Assemblages: Homonationalism in Queer Times. Durham: Duke University Press.Google Scholar
Putin, Vladimir. 2011. “On the Protection of Children from Information Harmful to their Health and Development.” January 3. Accessed April 23, 2014. http://eng.kremlin.ru/news/1580.Google Scholar
Putin, Vladimir 2013. “Orthodox-Slavic Values: The Foundation of Ukraine’s Civilisational Choice conference.” July 13. Accessed April 23, 2014. http://eng.kremlin.ru/transcripts/5783.Google Scholar
Ramsbotham, Oliver. 2005. “The Analysis of Protracted Social Conflict: A Tribute to Edward Azar.” Review of International Studies 31(1):109–126.Google Scholar
Rao, Rahul. 2010. Third World Protest: Between the Home and the World. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Rathbun, Brian. 2009. “It Takes all Types: Social Psychology, Trust, and the International Relations Paradigm in our Minds.” International Theory 1(3):345–380.Google Scholar
Richardson, Dianne. 2000. “Constructing Sexual Citizenship: Theorizing Sexual Rights.” Critical Social Policy 20(1):105–135.Google Scholar
Risse, Thomas, and Sikkink, Kathryn. 1999. “The Socialization of International Human Rights Norms into Domestic Practices: Introduction.” In The Power of Human Rights: International Norms and Domestic Change, edited by Thomas Risse, Stephen Ropp, and Kathryn Sikkink, 1–39. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Risse, Thomas, Ropp, Stephen and Sikkink, Kathryn, eds. 2013. The Persistent Power of Human Rights. Cambridge: Cambridge UP.Google Scholar
Rivers, Ian. 2011. Homophobic Bullying: Research and Theoretical Perspectives. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Rumelili, Bahar. 2012. “Liminal Identities and Process of Domestication and Subversion in International Relations.” Review of International Studies 38:495–508.Google Scholar
Sanders, Douglas. 1996. “Getting Lesbian and Gay Issues on the International Human Rights Agenda.” Human Rights Quarterly 18(1):67–106.Google Scholar
Sexual Minorities Uganda v. Scott Lively, 12-cv-30051-MAP. August 14. Accessed April 23, 2014. http://ccrjustice.org/files/SMUG_OrderDenyingDefMTD_08_13.pdf.Google Scholar
Sikkink, Kathryn. 2013. “The United States and Torture: Does the Spiral Model Work? In The Persistent Power of Human Rights, edited by Thomas Risse, Stephen Ropp, and Kathryn Sikkink, 145–163. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Simmons, Beth A. 2009. Mobilizing for Human Rights: International Law in Domestic Politics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Skodvin, Tora, and Andresen, Steiner. 2003. “Non-State Influence in the International Whaling Commission, 1970–1990.” Global Environmental Politics 3(4):61–86.Google Scholar
Stephan, Hannes. 2012. “Revisiting the Transatlantic Divergence over GMOs: Toward a Cultural-Political Analysis.” Global Environmental Politics 12(4):104–124.Google Scholar
Sunstein, Cass. 2002. “The Law of Group Polarization.” Journal of Political Philosophy 10(2):175–195.Google Scholar
Tajfel, Henri. 1978. Differentiation between Social Groups: Studies in the Social Psychology of Intergroup Relations. London: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Tajfel, Henri 1981. Human Groups and Social Categories. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Tanno, Dai, and Hamazaki, Toshihide. 2000. “Is American Opposition to Whaling Anti-Japanese?” Asian Affairs: An American Review 27(2):81–92.Google Scholar
Tenbensel, Tim. 1996. “International Human Rights Conventions and Australian Political Debate.” Australian Journal of Political Science 31(1):7–24.Google Scholar
The Guardian. 2009. “Pakistan to Register ‘third sex’ hijras.” The Guardian, July 18. Accessed April 23, 2014. http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/2009/jul/18/pakistan-transgender-hijra-third-sex.Google Scholar
The Guardian 2012. “Nobel Peace Prize Winner Defends Law Criminalising Homosexuality in Liberia.” The Guardian, March 19. Accessed April 23, 2014. http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2012/mar/19/nobel-peace-prize-law-homosexuality.Google Scholar
Thomas, Daniel. 2002. “Boomerangs and Superpowers: International Norms, Transnational Networks and US Foreign Policy.” Cambridge Review of International Affairs 15(1):25–40.Google Scholar
Towns, Ann. 2012. “Norms and Social Hierarchies.” International Organization 66:179–209.Google Scholar
Turner, John C. 1987. Rediscovering the Social Group: A Self-Categorization Theory. New York: Blackwell.Google Scholar
Turner, John C., and Giles, Howard. 1981. Intergroup Behaviour. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.Google Scholar
UN News Centre. 2010. “Universal Decriminalization of Homosexuality a Human Rights Imperative – Ban.” UN News Centre, December 10. Accessed April 23, 2014. http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=37026.Google Scholar
United Nations Commission on Human Rights. 1999a. “E/CN.4/1999/39CIVIL: Extrajudicial, Summary or Arbitrary Executions, Report of the Special Rapporteur, Ms. Asma Jahangir.” United Nations Commission on Human Rights, January 6. Accessed April 22, 2014. http://www.unhchr.ch/Huridocda/Huridoca.nsf/TestFrame/cbe3552f10761894802567350039609c?Opendocument.Google Scholar
United Nations Commission on Human Rights 1999b. “E/CN.4/2000/3/Add.3 Report of the Special Rapporteur on Extrajudicial, Summary or Arbitrary Executions, Ms. Asma Jahangir.” United Nations Commission on Human Rights, November 25. Accessed 22, 2014. http://www.unhchr.ch/Huridocda/Huridoca.nsf/TestFrame/279cc044f027da6580256887004fa59e?Opendocument.Google Scholar
United Nations General Assembly. 2001. “Press Release: In Series of Votes, Social Committee Defeats Efforts to Amend Texts on Extrajudicial, Summary or Arbitrary Executions.” United Nations General Assembly, November 22. Accessed April 22, 2014. http://www.unhchr.ch/huricane/huricane.nsf/0/bdbbbbb5ac184618c1256c7c00301b27?OpenDocument.Google Scholar
United Nations Human Rights Council. 2011. “Resolution A/HRC/RES/17/19.” United Nations Human Rights Council, July 14. Accessed April 22, 2014. http://daccess-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/G11/148/76/PDF/G1114876.pdf?OpenElement.Google Scholar
United Nations in Viet Nam 2013. “United Nations in Viet Nam Statement on International Day Against Homophobia and Transphobia.” May 20. Accessed April 23, 2014. http://www.un.org.vn/en/feature-articles-press-centre-submenu-252/2604-united-nations-in-viet-nam-statement-on-international-day-against-homophobia-and-transphobia.html.Google Scholar
Van der Veer, Peter. 2006. “Pim Fortuyn, Theo van Gogh, and the Politics of Tolerance in the Netherlands.” Public Culture 18(1):111–124.Google Scholar
Wendt, Alexander. 1999. Social Theory of International Politics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Whitaker, Brian. 2012. “The Ongoing Battle for Gay Rights in the Arab World.” Foreign Policy, March 12. Accessed April 22, 2014. http://mideast.foreignpolicy.com/posts/2012/03/12/the_continuing_battle_for_gay_rights_in_the_middle_east.Google Scholar
Wiener, Antje. 2004. “Contested Compliance: Interventions on the Normative Structure of World Politics.” European Journal of International Relations 10(2):189–234.Google Scholar
WikiLeaks. 2009. “Rudd Steps up Rhetoric on Whaling.” WikiLeaks, December 14. Accessed April 22, 2014. http://wikileaks.org/cable/2009/12/09CANBERRA1099.html.Google Scholar
Wilson, Ara. 1996. “Lesbian Visibility and Sexual Rights at Beijing.” Signs 22(1):214–218.Google Scholar
Wintemute, Robert. 1995. Sexual Orientation and Human Rights. Oxford: Clarendon Press.Google Scholar