Hostname: page-component-77c89778f8-fv566 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-07-18T17:04:07.876Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

No longer the “forgotten victims of armed conflict”: Operational and legal considerations for accountability mechanisms regarding crimes affecting persons with disabilities

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  02 November 2022

Alexa Magee
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Despite the fact that persons with disabilities comprise, according to current statistics, a significant portion of conflict-affected communities and are disproportionately affected by armed conflict, the lack of inclusion in accountability mechanisms for acts amounting to crimes under international law is notable. The Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD) provides a framework for mainstreaming inclusive investigation practices and promoting greater accountability, through application of the principles of autonomy, non-discrimination and accessibility. This article makes suggestions for the operationalization of this CRPD framework through specific recommendations for accountability mechanisms, alongside legal opportunities for recognition of crimes affecting persons with disabilities and crimes resulting in disability. A case study of the so-called Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant and persons with disabilities in Iraq is used to illustrate the application of recommendations to ensure that persons with disabilities are no longer the “forgotten victims of armed conflict”.

Keywords

accountabilitycrimes against humanitydisabilitygenocideinclusivityinvestigationsmainstreamingwar crimes
Type
Research Article
Information
International Review of the Red Cross , Volume 105 , Issue 922: Persons with disabilities in armed conflict , April 2023 , pp. 518 - 541
Copyright
Copyright © The Author(s), 2022. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of the ICRC

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

*

This article is written solely in the author’s personal capacity.

The advice, opinions and statements contained in this article are those of the author/s and do not necessarily reflect the views of the ICRC. The ICRC does not necessarily represent or endorse the accuracy or reliability of any advice, opinion, statement or other information provided in this article.

References

1 Thematic Study on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities under Article 11 of the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, on Situations of Risk and Humanitarian Emergencies, UN Doc. A/HRC/31/30, 30 November 2015, para. 4.

2 Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, 2515 UNTS 3, 13 December 2006 (entered into force 3 May 2008) (CRPD), Art. 3(a)(b)(f).

3 This categorization was first utilized to classify crimes affecting children in Federica D'Alessandra et al., Advancing Justice for Children: Innovations to Strengthen Accountability for Violations and Crimes Affecting Children in Conflict, Save the Children and University of Oxford, March 2021, p. 19 fn. 6.

4 UN Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), Criminal Intelligence: Manual for Analysts, Vienna, 2011, p. 10.

5 Office of the UN High Commissioner of Human Rights, “Persons with Disabilities ‘Forgotten Victims’ of Syria's Conflict – UN Committee”, 17 September 2013, available at: https://newsarchive.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=13736&LangID=E (all internet references were accessed in September 2022).

6 World Health Organization and World Bank, World Report on Disability, Geneva, 2011, p. 44Google Scholar.

7 Alice Priddy, Disability and Armed Conflict, Academic Briefing No. 14, Geneva Academy of International Humanitarian Law and Human Rights, Geneva, April 2019, p. 11; see also Protecting the Rights of Persons with Disabilities in Armed Conflict and Humanitarian Emergencies, UN Doc. CRPD/CSP/2021/2, 30 March 2021, paras 20, 28.

8 UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs, Global Humanitarian Overview 2022, New York, 2021, p. 7.

9 Office of the UN High Commissioner for Refugees, Global Trends: Forced Displacement in 2021, Geneva, 2020, p. 2.

10 Ibid., p. 28.

11 Protecting the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, above note 7, para. 16.

12 Ibid., para. 16; UNICEF, Children with Disabilities in Armed Conflict, New York, November 2018, p. 11; Global Protection Cluster, Silver Linings: Mental Health and Wellbeing in the COVID 19 Era, February 2021, p. 7.

13 Gerard Quinn, Report of the Special Rapporteur on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, UN Doc. A/76/146, 19 July 2021, para. 67.

14 Ibid., paras 29, 67.

15 Ibid., paras 30, 31; Global Protection Cluster, above note 12, p. 7.

16 Protecting the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, above note 7, paras 13, 14; G. Quinn, above note 13, paras 69–76.

17 CRPD, above note 2.

18 As of 1 September 2022.

19 Pons, William I. et al. ., “Disability, Human Rights Violations, and Crimes against Humanity”, American Journal of International Law, Vol. 116, No. 1, 2022, pp. 79–80CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

20 CRPD, above note 2, Art. 11; G. Quinn, above note 13, para. 84.

21 Thematic Study, above note 1, paras 3, 4; Protecting the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, above note 7, paras 8–11.

22 UN Security Council, “Commissions and Investigative Bodies”, available at: www.un.org/securitycouncil/content/repertoire/commissions-and-investigative-bodies; Human Rights Council, “List of HRC-Mandated Commissions of Inquiries/Fact-Finding Missions and Other Bodies (as of May 2022)”, available at: www.ohchr.org/en/hr-bodies/hrc/list-hrc-mandat.

23 UNSC Res. 2475, 20 June 2019, paras 2, 4, 6.

24 G. Quinn, above note 13, para. 26; UN Secretary-General, United Nations Disability Strategy, New York, June 2019 (UNDIS), p. 1.

25 UN Secretary-General, Disability Inclusion in the United Nations System: 2020 Programme Year, New York, October 2021.

26 G. Quinn, above note 13, p. 16.

27 Ibid., para. 92.

28 Ibid., para. 106(c).

29 Ibid., para. 94.

30 Ibid., para. 68.

31 Ibid., para. 68.

32 Ibid., paras 84, 92–94.

33 CRPD, above note 2, preambular paras (u), (y), Art. 13.

34 G. Quinn, above note 13, para. 12.

35 Ibid., para. 16.

36 CRPD, above note 2, Art. 11; W. I. Pons et al., above note 19, pp. 85, 91; G. Quinn, above note 13, para. 66.

37 Motz, Stephanie, “Art.11 Situations of Risk and Humanitarian Emergencies”, in Bantekas, Ilias et al. (eds), The UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities: A Commentary, Oxford Scholarly Authorities on International Law, Oxford, 2018, pp. 316–317Google Scholar.

38 See UNSC Res. 2379, 21 September 2017, para. 6; UNGA Res. 71/248, 11 January 2017, para. 1; HRC Res. 39/2, 27 September 2018, para. 22.

39 W. I. Pons et al., above note 19, pp. 77, 78.

40 See A. Priddy, above note 7, p. 25, regarding the CPRD as an “implementing convention” that “sets out a detailed code [for how existing rights] should be put into practice” for persons with disabilities.

41 UNDIS, above note 24, p. 20.

42 Ibid.

43 Ibid.

44 A. Priddy, above note 7, pp. 27, 28.

45 CRPD, above note 2, Arts 3(c), 29, 30.

46 Ibid., Arts 3(a), 12.

47 S. Motz, above note 37, p. 352.

48 Ibid., pp. 352–354.

49 Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, General Comment No. 1, “Article 12: Equal Recognition before the Law”, UN Doc. CRPD/C/GC/1, 19 May 2014, para. 17.

50 CRPD, above note 2, Arts 3(b), 5.

51 Ibid., Art. 2.

52 Ibid., Arts 3(c), 29, 30.

53 Ibid., Art. 5(3).

54 Ibid., Art. 2; A. Priddy, above note 7, p. 29.

55 CRPD, above note 2, Art. 2.

56 Ibid., Arts 2, 5(3).

57 Ibid., Arts 14(2), 27(1)(i).

58 Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, “General Comment No. 6 (2016) on Equality and Non-Discrimination”, UN Doc. CRPD/C/GC/6, 26 April 2018, paras 26(e)(f)(g), 17; Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, Michael Lockery v. Australia, Communication No. 13/2013, UN Doc. CRPD/C/15/D/13/2013, 30 May 2016, para. 8.5.

59 A. Priddy, above note 7, p. 31.

60 Ibid., p. 32; Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, General Comment No. 2, “Article 9: Accessibility”, UN Doc. CRPD/C/GC/2, 22 May 2014, para. 26.

61 UNDIS, above note 24, p. 8.

62 W. I. Pons et al., above note 19, p. 78.

63 Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, General Comment No. 6, above note 58, paras 24(b), 26(e); Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, Marie-Louise Jungelin v. Sweden, Communication No. 5/2011, UN Doc. CRPD/C/12/D/5/2011, Joint Opinion of Committee Members Carlos Rios Espinosa, Theresia Degener, Munthian Buntan, Silvia Judith Quan-Chang and Maria Soledad Cisternas Reyes (Dissenting), 14 November 2014, para. 5.

64 Julinda Beqiraj, Lawrence McNamara and Victoria Wicks, Access to Justice for Persons with Disabilities: From International Principles to Practice, International Bar Association, October 2017, p. 28.

65 Ibid., pp. 28, 39.

66 Ibid., p. 28.

67 Ibid., pp. 29, 30.

68 CRPD, above note 2, Arts 3(f), 9, 13.

69 Ibid., above note 2, Art. 9.

70 Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, above note 60, para. 13.

71 Ibid., para. 25.

72 Ibid., para. 26.

73 Ibid., para. 25.

74 CRPD, above note 2, Art. 13(1).

75 Ibid.

76 Report of the Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, UN Doc. A/72/55, 2016, para. 35; see also Report of the Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, UN Doc. A/74/55, 2018, para. 58.

77 CRPD, above note 2, Arts 2, 4(1)(f).

78 J. Beqiraj, L. McNamara and V. Wicks, above note 64, p. 25.

79 Ibid., p. 24.

80 UNDIS, above note 24, p. 1; Inter-Agency Standing Committee, Guidelines: Inclusion of Persons with Disabilities in Humanitarian Action, July 2019, p. 10.

81 UNODC, above note 4, p. 10.

82 Ibid.

83 For discussion on the importance of mainstreaming for crimes affecting children and sexual and gender-based violence (SGBV) crimes, see F. D'Alessandra et al., above note 3, paras 57, 60, 62.

84 For a discussion of how a policy on persons with disabilities fits with the structure of the International Criminal Court (ICC) in particular, see W. I. Pons et al., above note 19, pp. 91–92.

85 Independent Investigative Mechanism for Myanmar: Terms of Reference, UN Doc. A/73/716, 21 January 2019, paras 25, 30; Terms of Reference of the Investigative Team to Support Domestic Efforts to Hold Islamic State in Iraq and the Levant (Da'esh) Accountable for Acts that May amount to War Crimes, Crimes against Humanity and Genocide Committed in Iraq, established pursuant to Security Council Resolution 2379 (2017), UN Doc. S/2018/118, 14 February 2018, para. 15; Implementation of the Resolution Establishing the International, Impartial and Independent Mechanism to Assist in the Investigation and Prosecution of Persons Responsible for the Most Serious Crimes under International Law Committed in the Syrian Arab Republic since March 2011, UN Doc. A/71/755, 19 January 2017, para. 19, 41.

86 UNDIS, above note 24, p. 18.

87 Ibid., para. 26(a).

88 See ICC Office of the Prosecutor, Policy Paper on Children, November 2016; ICC Office of the Prosecutor, Policy Paper on Sexual and Gender-Based Crimes, June 2014.

89 W. I. Pons et al., above note 19, p. 77.

90 UNDIS, above note 24, para. 26(d).

91 Ibid., p. 13.

92 Ibid., p. 15.

93 For a discussion of this suggestion in the context of achieving accountability for crimes affecting children, see F. D'Alessandra et al., above note 3, paras 72, 77.

94 Ibid., paras 78, 79.

95 UNDIS, above note 24, p. 14.

96 Ibid., para. 26(f). An example of this includes the disability ramp access construction for the Baghdad office of the UN Investigative Team to Promote Accountability for Crimes Committed by Da'esh/ISIL (UNITAD). Publicly available information on this is available at: www.ungm.org/Public/Notice/145472.

97 UNDIS, above note 24, p. 15.

98 UNODC, above note 4, p. 13.

99 See UNITAD's Evidence Lifecycle Management System, Shuhud online crime reporting tool and use of e-discovery platforms, as referenced in UNITAD, Harnessing Advanced Technology in International Criminal Investigations, Baghdad, 2021.

100 UNODC, above note 4, p. 13.

101 Ibid., pp. 14–15.

102 Ibid., p. 15.

103 Ibid., pp. 15–16.

104 UNDIS, above note 24, p. 18.

105 For a discussion of this factor in the context of achieving accountability for crimes affecting children, see F. D'Alessandra et al., paras 24, 58, 60, 77.

106 Ibid., para. 5.

107 Ibid., paras 58, 72.

108 W. I. Pons et al., above note 19, p. 80.

109 This categorization is utilized in F. D'Alessandra et al., p. 29 fn. 11.

110 Such crimes can be specifically found in Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, UN Doc. A/CONF.183/9, 17 July 1998 (entered into force 1 July 2002), Arts 6, 7(1)(a)(f)(h), 7(1)(d), 8(2)(a)(i)(ii-1), 8(2)(b)(i)(ii)(ix)(x-1)(xxi), 8(2)(c)(i-1)(i-2)(i-4)(ii), 8(2)(e)(i)(iv)(xi-1).

111 ICC, The Prosecutor v. Thomas Lubanga Dyilo, Case No. ICC-01/04-01/06-1119, Decision on Victims’ Participation (Trial Chamber I), 18 January 2008, para. 127; ICC, The Prosecutor v. Thomas Lubanga Dyilo, Case No. ICC-01/04-01/06-2904, Decision Establishing the Principles and Procedures to Be Applied to Reparations (Trial Chamber I), 7 August 2012, para. 189; ICC, The Prosecutor v. Germain Katanga, Case No. ICC-01/04-01/07-717, Decision on the Confirmation of Charges (Pre-Trial Chamber I), 30 September 2008, para. 144(c).

112 W. I. Pons et al., above note 19, pp. 80–82; F. D'Alessandra et al., paras 96–99.

113 ICC, Elements of Crimes, 2011, Art. 7(1)(h)(3).

114 ICTY, The Prosecutor v. Duško Tadić, Case No. IT-94-1-A, Judgment (Appeals Chamber), 15 July 1999, para. 285.

115 Ibid.

116 Suhr, Valérie V., “Persecution on ‘Other Grounds that Are Universally Recognized as Impermissible under International Law’”, in Rainbow Jurisdiction at the International Criminal Court: Protection of Sexual and Gender Minorities under the Rome Statute, Springer, Berlin, and T. M. C. Asser Press, The Hague, 2022, p. 287CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Boas, Gideon J., “Crimes against Humanity”, in Boas, Gideon J. et al. (eds), International Criminal Law Practitioner Library: Elements of Crimes under International Law, Vol. 2, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2009, pp. 107–108CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Cryer, Robert et al. , An Introduction to International Criminal Law and Procedure, 4th ed., Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2019, p. 253CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

117 V. V. Suhr, above note 116, p. 288.

118 Ibid.

119 Schabas, William A., The International Criminal Court: A Commentary on the Rome Statute, 2nd ed., Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2016, pp. 198–199Google Scholar; Brown, A Widney and Grenfell, Laura, “The International Crime of Gender-Based Persecution and the Taliban”, Melbourne Journal of International Law, Vol. 4, No. 2, 2003, p. 358Google Scholar.

120 Ibid., p. 198 fn. 413.

121 V. V. Suhr, above note 116, pp. 289–290.

122 Ibid., pp. 292–293.

123 Ibid., p. 292.

124 W. Schabas, above note 119, p. 198; Schmid, Evelyne, Taking Economical, Social and Cultural Rights Seriously in International Criminal Law, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2015, pp. 137–138CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

125 ICTY, Prosecutor v. Krnojelac, Case No. IT-97-25-A, Judgment (Appeals Chamber), 17 September 2003, para. 184.

126 W. I. Pons et al., above note 19, p. 91.

127 The author notes that whether the crimes fall under crimes against humanity or war crimes would depend on the fact patterns meeting the requisite contextual elements, and for war crimes, which acts are prohibited in international and non-international armed conflicts. Recognition of specific targeting of persons with disabilities due to their disability would then be covered under the crime against humanity of persecution, if applicable.

128 W. I. Pons et al., above note 19, p. 91.

129 ICTY, Prosecutor v. Tadić, Case No. IT-94-1-T, Decision on the Defence Motion for Interlocutory Appeal on Jurisdiction (Appeals Chamber), 16 November 1998, paras 128–135; ICTY, Prosecutor v. Kunarac, Case Nos IT-96-23-T, IT-96-23/1-T, Judgment (Trial Chamber), 22 February 2001, para. 480; ICTY, Prosecutor v. Hadžihasanović and Kubura, Case No. IT-01-47-AR73.3, Decision (Appeals Chamber), 11 March 2005, paras 29, 30; ICTY, Krnojelac, above note 125, paras 222–230.

130 W. I. Pons et al., above note 19, pp. 62–64.

131 A. Priddy, above note 7, p. 24.

132 Ibid., p. 92; W. I. Pons et al., above note 19, p. 66.

133 Regarding the crime against humanity of torture, the author notes that no specific purpose may need to be proved for this crime, and thus discrimination on the ground of disability would not be applicable. ICC, above note 113, Art. 7(1)(f), in contrast to Arts 8(2)(a)(ii)-1(2) and 8(2)(c)(i)-4(2).

134 ICTY, Prosecutor v. Delalić and Others, Case No. IT-96-21-T, Judgment (Trial Chamber), 16 November 1998, para. 493; International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR), The Prosecutor v. Jean-Paul Akayesu, Case No. ICTR-96-4-T, Judgment (Trial Chamber), 2 September 1998, para. 597.

135 ICTY, Kunarac, above note 129, para. 485.

136 ICTY, Prosecutor v. Kvočka et al., Case No. IT-98-30/1, Judgment (Trial Chamber), 2 November 2001, para. 167: “subjective criteria must be taken into account, including a particular victim's temperament or sensitivity”.

137 W. I. Pons et al., above note 19, p. 82.

138 G. Quinn, above note 13, para. 53; W. I. Pons et al., above note 19, p. 91.

139 W. I. Pons et al., above note 19, pp. 62–70.

140 Protecting the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, above note 7, para. 2.

141 ICTY, Prosecutor v. Tolimir, Case No. IT-05-88/2-T, Judgment (Trial Chamber), 12 December 2012, paras 1170–1171; Iraqi High Tribunal, Al Anfal Special Verdict, Second Criminal Court, Case 1/2nd Criminal/2006, 2007, pp. 496, 853, translation available at: www.asser.nl/upload/documents/DomCLIC/Docs/NLP/Iraq/Anfal_verdict.pdf.

142 UNICEF, above note 12, p. 10; Motjaba Satkin et al., “The Quality of Life of Mustard Gas Victims: A Systematic Review”, Tanaffos, Vol. 16, No. 2, 2017, pp. 116, 121–123.

143 ICTR, The Prosecutor v. Athanase Seromba, Case No. ICTR-2001-66-A, Judgment (Appeals Chamber), 12 March 2008, para. 46.

144 ICTR, Akayesu, above note 134, paras 507, 508; District Court of Jerusalem, Attorney-General of Israel v. Adolf Eichmann, Judgment, 36 ILR 5, 1968, para. 159.

145 Special Court for Sierra Leone (SCSL), The Prosecutor v. Issa Hassan Sesay et al., Case No. SCSL-04-15-T, Judgment (Trial Chamber), 2 March 2009, para. 179; ICTY, Tadić, above note 114, para. 285 (as part of common Article 3 violations).

146 SCSL, The Prosecutor v. Alex Tamba Brima et al., Case No. SCSL-04-16-T, 20 June 2007, para. 724; SCSL, Sesay, above note 145, para.180(i); ICC, above note 113, Arts 8(2)(b)(x)-1(1), 8(2)(c)(i)-2(1), 8(2)(e)(xi)-1(1).

147 SCSL, Brima, above note 146, para. 1213; SCSL, Sesay, above note 145, para. 1208.

148 The author notes the lack of an established universal regime regarding the ban of anti-personnel landmines: see Malanczuk, Peter, “The International Criminal Court and Landmines: What Are the Consequences of Leaving the US Behind?”, European Journal of International Law, Vol. 11, No. 1, 2000, pp. 84–87CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

149 International Committee of the Red Cross, “Anti-Personnel Landmines: Friend or Foe? A Study of the Military Use and Effectiveness of Anti-Personnel Mines, Commissioned by the ICRC, March 1996”, in Louis Maresca and Stuart Maslen (eds), The Banning of Anti-Personnel Landmines: The Legal Contribution of the International Committee of the Red Cross 1955–1999, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2000, p. 457; UNICEF, above note 12, p. 11; Hart, Naomi et al. , “Making Every Life Count: Ensuring Equality and Protection for Persons with Disabilities in Armed Conflicts”, Monash University Law Review, Vol. 40, No. 1, 2014, p. 168Google Scholar.

150 ICTY, The Prosecutor v. Milan Martić, Case No. IT-95-11-T, Judgment (Trial Chamber), 12 June 2007, paras 462–463; Office of the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights, “Indiscriminate Attacks and Indiscriminate Weapons in International Humanitarian Law”, 30 March 2016, p. 6.

151 ICTY, Kunarac, above note 129, para. 874; ICTY, Prosecutor v. Kunarac, Case No. IT-96-23/1-A, Judgment (Appeals Chamber), 12 June 2002, para. 355.

152 ICC, Rules of Procedure and Evidence, 2013, Rule 145.

153 W. I. Pons et al., above note 19, pp. 83–84.

154 Raya Al-Jadir, “I Was Lucky I Escaped Iraq When I Did – to Be Disabled There Is to Live a Nightmare”, The Independent, 4 December 2018, available at: www.independent.co.uk/voices/iraq-disability-war-corruption-public-transport-un-convention-middle-east-a8666281.html.

155 Emma Glanfield, “How Much More Depraved can ISIS Get? Group's Sharia Judges Order Children with Down Syndrome and Other Disabilities to Be Killed in Chilling Echo of the Nazis”, Mail Online, 14 December 2015, available at: www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-3358840/How-depraved-ISIS-Group-s-Sharia-judges-order-children-s-syndrome-disabilities-killed-chilling-echo-Nazis.html; Debra Killalea, “ISIS Wants to Kill Kids with Down Syndrome, Mosul Eye Says”, News.com.au, 15 December 2015, available at: https://tinyurl.com/2p9swybr; David K. Li, “ISIS Is Slaughtering Babies Born with Disabilities”, New York Post, 14 December 2015, available at: https://nypost.com/2015/12/14/isis-is-slaughtering-babies-born-with-disabilities/. All of these articles reference Mosul Eye, “ISIL Issues ‘Fatwa’ to Exterminate Children with Down's Syndrome”, Facebook, 13 December 2015, available at: www.facebook.com/MosulEyee/videos/829441013844069/.

156 E. Glanfield, above note 155; D. Killalea, above note 155; D. K. Li, above note 155; Mosul Eye, above note 155.

157 Stephen Jones, “ISIS Terrorists Kill Disabled Girl ‘for Failing to Keep Up’ as She's Marched Out of Village Near Mosul”, The Mirror, 26 October 2016, available at: www.mirror.co.uk/news/world-news/isis-terrorists-kill-disabled-girl-9128988.

158 R. Al-Jadir, above note 154.

159 Qassim Abdul-Zahra, “ISIS Is Accused of Chemical Attack in Iraq that Wounds Hundreds, Kills Child”, Washington Post, 12 March 2016, available at: https://tinyurl.com/4evtcnv6; Nafiseh Kohnavard, “Iraqi Town Taza ‘Hit in IS Chemical Attack’ Appeals for Help”, BBC News, 25 March 2016, available at: www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-35898990.

160 Abolghaswmi, Hassan et al. , “Childhood Physical Abnormalities Following Paternal Exposure to Sulfur Mustard Gas in Iran: A Case-Control Study,” Conflict and Health, Vol. 4, No. 13, 2010, p. 5Google Scholar; Alaani, Samira et al. , “Uranium and Other Contaminants in Hair from the Parents of Children with Congenital Anomalies in Fallujah, Iraq”, Conflict and Health, Vol. 5, No. 1, 2011, p. 13CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed; Balali-Moodin, Mahdi, “Early and Delayed Effects of Sulfur Mustard in Iranian Veterans after the Iraq–Iran Conflict”, in Gupta, Ramesh C. et al. (eds), Handbook of Toxicology of Chemical Warfare Agents, Elsevier Science & Technology, Saint Louis, MI, 2015, p. 45Google Scholar.