1 Rio Declaration on Environment and Development, UN Doc. A/CONF.151/26, 12 August 1992.

2 To the best of the author's knowledge, the capital importance of this “dual strike” was most prominently voiced by the late Suha Jarrar, senior legal researcher and advocacy officer at Al-Haq. See Suha Jarrar, Adaptation under Occupation: Climate Change Vulnerability in the Occupied Palestinian Territory, Al-Haq, 2019, p. 12.

3 ICRC, Commentary on the First Geneva Convention: Convention (I) for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded and Sick in Armed Forces in the Field, 2nd ed., Geneva, 2016, para. 322; Cuyckens, Hanne, Revisiting the Law of Occupation, Brill, Boston, MA, 2017, p. 162Google Scholar.

4 Koutroulis, Vaios, “The Application of International Humanitarian Law and International Human Rights Law in Situation of Prolonged Occupation: Only A Matter Of Time?”, International Review of the Red Cross, Vol. 94, No. 885, 2012, p. 205CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

5 The concept of “slow and structural violence” is borrowed from Eliana Cusato's remarkable book: see Cusato, Eliana, The Ecology of War and Peace: Marginalizing Slow and Structural Violence in International Law, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2021, pp. 19–25CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Adapted to this article, the concept refers to the gradual and persistent ecological harm inflicted on people and the environment as a result of the structural and systemic conditions that arise during and after armed conflicts, in this case in belligerent occupations. It is this insidious harm that prevents local populations from adapting to and mitigating the effects of climate change.

6 Dörmann, Knut and Gasser, Hans-Peter, “Protection of the Civilian Population”, in Fleck, Dieter (ed.), The Handbook of International Humanitarian Law, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2013, p. 274Google Scholar.

7 H. Cuyckens, above note 3, p. 152.

8 See the definition of “negative peace” provided by the Institute for Economics and Peace (IEP) in IEP, Positive Peace Report 2022, January 2022, p. 8, available at www.economicsandpeace.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/PPR-2022-web.pdf (all internet references were accessed in August 2023); negative peace is defined therein as “the absence of violence or fear of violence”.

9 UN Security Council, “Climate Change ‘Biggest Threat Modern Humans Have Ever Faced’, World-Renowned Naturalist Tells Security Council, Calls for Greater Global Cooperation”, press release, UN Doc. SC/14445, 23 February 2021.

10 UN Human Rights Council (HRC), Human Rights and Climate Change, UN Doc. A/HRC/RES/44/7, 23 July 2020, para. 19; UN Environment Assembly of the UN Environment Programme, Res. 4, “Environment and Health”, UN Doc. UNEP/EA.3/Res. 4, 30 January 2018, para. 18.

11 IPCC, Climate Change 2023: Synthesis Report on the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report (AR6): Summary for Policmakers, 19 March 2023, p. 5, para. A.2.2.

12 IPCC, Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability: Summary for Policymakers, 27 February 2022, p. 5.

13 IPCC, “Annex I: Glossary”, in Global Warming of 1.5°C: An IPCC Special Report on the Impacts of Global Warming of 1.5°C above pre-Industrial Levels and Related Global Greenhouse Gas Emission Pathways, in the Context of Strengthening the Global Response to the Threat of Climate Change, Sustainable Development, and Efforts to Eradicate Poverty, 2018, p. 554.

14 European Commission, “EU Adaptation Strategy”, available at: https://ec.europa.eu/clima/eu-action/adaptation-climate-change/eu-adaptation-strategy_en.

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16 IPCC, above note 13, p. 542.

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19 IPCC, above note 11, p. 5; IPCC, above note 12, p. 11.

20 IPCC, Climate Change 2007: Synthesis Report: Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2007, p. 14. See also IPCC, above note 12, p. 11.

21 Slade, Tuiloma Neroni, “International Humanitarian Law and Climate Change”, in Linton, Suzannah, McCormack, Tim and Sivakumaran, Sandesh (eds), Asia-Pacific Perspectives on International Humanitarian Law, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2019, p. 644Google Scholar.

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31 M. Mason, above note 27, p. 163.

32 Hague Convention (IV) Respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land and Its Annex, Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land, The Hague, 18 October 1907 (Hague Regulations), Art. 42.

33 Geneva Convention (IV) relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War of 12 August 1949, 75 UNTS 287 (entered into force 21 October 1959) (GC IV).

34 Protocol Additional (I) to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and relating to the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts, 1125 UNTS 3, 8 June 1977 (entered into force 7 December 1978) (AP I).

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40 See V. Koutroulis, above note 4, p. 167: the temporary nature essentially “reflects the idea that a belligerent occupation does not change the status of the occupied territory but merely suspends the exercise of the ousted sovereign's rights over the said territory”.

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44 Y. Dinstein, above note 35, p. 58; Supreme Court of Israel, Jamayat Askan Alma'Almun Althaunia Almahduda Almasaulia, Lawfully Registered Cooperative in Regional Command of Judea and Samaria v. Commander of IDF Forces in the Judea and Samaria Region – the Superior Planning Council for the Judea and Samaria Region, Case No. HCJ 393/82, 12 December 1983, para. 12.

45 A. Roberts, above note 42, p. 47.

46 Y. Dinstein, above note 35, p. 128; E. Benvenisti, above note 37, p. 246; Spoerri, Philip, “The Law of Occupation”, in Clapham, Andrew and Gaeta, Paola (eds), The Oxford Handbook of International Law in Armed Conflict, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2015, pp. 197–198Google Scholar.

47 E. Benvenisti, above note 37, p. 246, referring to Supreme Court of Israel, The Christian Society for the Sacred Places v. Minister of Defence, Case No. HCJ 337/71, 1972, and Supreme Court of Israel, Jamayat Askan Alma'Almun Althaunia Almahduda Almasaulia, above note 44.

48 Benvenisti, Eyal, “Occupation and Territorial Administration”, in Rain Liivoja and Tim McCormack (eds), Routledge Handbook of the Law of Armed Conflict, Routledge, New York, 2016, p. 435Google Scholar.

49 International Court of Justice (ICJ), Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons, Advisory Opinion, ICJ Reports 1996 (Nuclear Weapons Advisory Opinion), para. 25; ICJ, Legal Consequences of the Construction of a Wall in the Occupied Palestinian Territory, Advisory Opinion, ICJ Reports 2004 (Wall Advisory Opinion), paras 107–113; ICJ, Armed Activities on the Territory of the Congo (Democratic Republic of the Congo v. Uganda), Judgment, ICJ Reports 2005, para. 216. See also International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia, Prosecutor v. Naletilić and Martinović, Case No. IT-98-34, Judgment (Trial Chamber), 31 March 2003, para. 214; Malcolm N. Shaw, International Law, 7th ed., Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2014, p. 857; International Law Commission (ILC), First Report on the Protection of the Environment in Relation to Armed Conflicts by Marja Letho, Special Rapporteur, UN Doc. A/CN.4/720, 30 April 2018, para. 14.

50 Nuclear Weapons Advisory Opinion, above note 49.

51 See ILC, above note 49, p. 41; Bashi, Sari, “Human Rights in Indefinite Occupation: Palestine”, International Comparative, Policy and Ethics Law Review, Vol. 3, No. 3, 2020, p. 825Google Scholar; Lubell, Noam, “Human Rights Obligations in Military Occupation”, International Review of the Red Cross, Vol. 94, No. 885, 2012CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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53 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, 9 May 1992 (entered into force 21 March 1994) (UNFCCC).

54 Ibid., Art. 2.

55 UNFCCC, “Fact Sheet: The Need for Adaptation”, available at: https://unfccc.int/files/press/backgrounders/application/pdf/press_factsh_adaptation.pdf.

56 Noble, Ian R. et al., “Adaptation Needs and Options”, in Christopher B. Field et al. (eds), Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Part A: Global and Sectoral Aspects, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2014, p. 844Google Scholar.

57 Ibid., p. 845.

58 Ibid., p. 847.

59 Ibid., p. 848.

60 UNFCCC, above note 53, Art. 4(1)(d).

61 Paris Agreement, 12 December 2015 (entered into force 4 November 2016).

62 Ibid., Art. 2.

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66 ILC, Provisional Summary Record of the 3504th Meeting, UN Doc. A/CN.4/SR.3504, 31 October 2019, p. 15. For the full text of the Draft Principles, with commentaries, see ILC, Draft Principles on Protection of the Environment in Relation to Armed Conflicts, with Commentaries, in Yearbook of the International Law Commission, Vol. 2, Part 2, 2022, UN Doc. A/77/10 (ILC Draft Principles).

67 Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat, 2 February 1971.

68 ILC, above note 65, Art. 6.

69 UNFCCC, above note 53, Preamble.

70 See, in this sense, Pezzot, Romina Edith, “IHL in the Era of Climate Change: The Application of the UN Climate Change Regime to Belligerent Occupations”, International Review of the Red Cross, Vol. 105, No. 923, 2023, pp. 1084–1087CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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73 Ibid., pp. 1081–1083; Feji, Lena, “Climate Change and the Vulnerable Occupied Palestinian Territories”, UCLA Journal of Environmental Law and Policy, Vol. 39, No. 1, 2021, p. 76Google Scholar; Limon, Marc, “Human Rights Obligations and Accountability in the Face of Climate Change”, Georgia Journal of International and Comparative Law, Vol. 38, 2010, p. 558Google Scholar.

74 Mayer, Benoît, The International Law on Climate Change, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2018, p. 166CrossRefGoogle Scholar (emphasis added).

75 R. E. Pezzot, above note 70, pp. 1081–1083. Pezzot argues that, through a harmonic interpretation of the Paris Agreement and the harm prevention principle, one can conclude to the extraterritorial application of the Paris Agreement. In this sense, “the Occupying Power would be responsible for controlling GHG [greenhouse gas] emissions from the occupied territory under its effective control (in order to avoid worsening the climate change situation), should take concrete actions to mitigate those GHG emissions and to protect the civil population from climate change during the occupation, and should include in its nationally determined contributions those GHGs produced in the occupied territory when that space is under its effective control”.

76 Vordermayer, Markus, “The Extraterritorial Applicability of Multilateral Environment Agreements”, Harvard International Law Journal, Vol. 59, No. 1, 2018, p. 90Google Scholar.

77 Weinger, Benjamin Kaplan, “Scripting Climate Futures: The Geographical Assumptions of Climate Planning”, Political Geography, Vol. 88, 2021, p. 4CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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79 Tristan Ferraro, Expert Meeting: Occupation and Other Forms of Administration of Foreign Territory, ICRC, Geneva, 2012, p. 57; Yutaka Arai, The Law of Occupation: Continuity and Change of International Humanitarian Law and Its Interaction with International Human Rights Law, Vol. 2, Brill, Leiden, 2009, p. 96.

80 Y. Dinstein, above note 35, p. 101.

81 ICJ, Armed Activities, above note 49, para. 178.

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84 Ibid., pp. 98–100, referring to Supreme Court of Israel, Abu Aita et al. v. Commander of the Judea and Samaria Region et al., Case No. HCJ 69/81, 5 April 1983.

85 Y. Dinstein, above note 35, p. 102.

86 E. Cusato, above note 5, p. 59.

87 Brooks, Nick and Adger, W. Neil, “Assessing and Enhancing Adaptive Capacity”, in Bo Lim and Erika Spanger-Siegfried (eds), Adaptation Policy Frameworks for Climate Change: Development Strategies, Policies, and Measures, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2005, p. 168Google Scholar.

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89 Jonathan Verschuuren, “Climate Change Adaptation and Water Law”, in Jonathan Verschuuren (ed.), Research Handbook on Climate Change Adaptation Law, Edward Elgar, Cheltenham, 2013, pp. 251–252.

90 Karen Hulme, “Climate Change and International Humanitarian Law”, in Rosemary Rayfuse and Shirley V. Scott (eds), International Law in the Era of Climate Change, Edward Elgar, Cheltenham, 2012, p. 211.

91 Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, 23 May 1969 (entered into force on 27 January 1980), Art. 26.

92 See ICJ, Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States of America), Judgment, ICJ Reports 1986, pp. 135 ff.; Kolb, Robert, “Principles as Sources of International Law”, Netherlands International Law Review, Vol. 53, No. 1, 2006, p. 18CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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94 ICJ, Nicaragua, above note 92, para. 275.

95 Michael Siegrist, The Functional Beginning of Belligerent Occupation, Graduate Institute Publications, Geneva, 2011.

96 Hans-Joachim Heintze, “Protection of the Environment and International Humanitarian Law”, in Centre of Analysis of International Relations, Neglected Victim of the Armenia-Azerbaijan Conflict: Environmental Impacts of Occupation, Baku, 2020, p. 20.

97 ICRC, above note 22, p. 18.

98 Kretzmer, David, “The Law of Belligerent Occupation in the Supreme Court of Israel”, International Review of the Red Cross, Vol. 94, No. 885, 2012, p. 220CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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100 ILC Draft Principles, above note 66, p. 158.

101 Ibid., pp. 161–162.

102 ILC, above note 49, pp. 24–25: in her first report, Special Rapporteur Marja Letho referred to the need for the Occupying Power to adopt some “forward-looking action” to “ensure the well-being of the population”.

103 World Health Organization and UNFCCC, Occupied Palestinian Territory: Health and Climate Change Profile 2022, 2022 available at: https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/352629/WHO-HEP-ECH-CCH-22.01.04-eng.pdf?sequence=1.

104 ILC Draft Principles, above note 66, p. 161.

105 N. Lubell, above note 51, p. 330.

106 Koppe, Erik V., “Climate Change and Human Security during Armed Conflicts”, Human Rights and International Legal Discourse, Vol. 8, No. 1, 2014, p. 78Google Scholar.

107 ICJ, Armed Activities, above note 49, para. 178.

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109 Ibid., para. 68.

110 Israel, “Comments from the State of Israel on the International Law Commission's Draft Principles on the Protection of the Environment in Relation to Armed Conflicts as Adopted by the Commission in 2019”, 2020, p. 24.

111 See ICRC, “Gaza: On the Frontlines of Climate Change”, 7 April 2022, available at: www.icrc.org/en/document/gaza-frontlines-climate-change.

112 T. Ferraro, above note 79, p. 13; E. Benvenisti, above note 37, p. 247.

113 Hanne Cuyckens, “The Law of Occupation”, in Jan Wouters, Philippe De Man and Nele Verlinden, Armed Conflicts and the Law, Intersentia, Cambridge, 2016, p. 440.

114 M. Sassòli, above note 82, p. 668; Y. Dinstein, above note 35, p. 119.

115 Y. Dinstein, above note 35, p. 119.

116 ILC Draft Articles, above note 66, p. 164 fn. 770.

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119 Y. Dinstein, above note 35, p. 121.

120 M. Sassòli, above note 82, p. 676.

121 Y. Dinstein, above note 35, p. 127; T. Ferraro, above note 79, p. 58.

122 Y. Dinstein, above note 35, p. 128; see also A. Roberts, above note 42, p. 52.

123 R. E. Pezzot, above note 70, pp. 1080–1081.

124 See the notion of “transformational adaptation” in Mariya Gancheva, Sarah O'Brien, Tugce Tugran and Camille Borrett, Adapting to Climate Change: Challenges and Opportunities for EU Local and Regional Authorities, European Committee of the Regions, 2020.

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127 Yoram Dinstein, The Dilemmas Relating to Legislation under Article 43 of the Hague Regulations and Peace-Building, Background Paper prepared for Informal High-Level Expert Meeting on Current Challenges to International Humanitarian Law, Cambridge, MA, 25–27 June 2004, p. 8.

128 K. Hulme, above note 25, p. 240.

129 Jean Pictet (ed.), Commentary on the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, Vol. 4: Geneva Convention relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War, ICRC, Geneva, 1958, p. 207.

130 Shardul Agrawala et al., “Climate Change and Natural Resource Management”, in OECD, Bridge Over Troubled Waters: Linking Climate Change and Development, OECD Publishing, Paris, 2006.

131 John E. Gross, Stephen Woodley, Leigh A. Welling and James E. M. Watson (eds), Adapting to Climate Change: Guidance for Protected Area Managers and Planners, IUCN Best Practices Protected Areas Guidelines Series No. 24, Gland, 2016, p. 96.

132 Daniëlla Dam-de Jong, International Law and Governance of Natural Resources in Conflict and Post-Conflict Situations, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2015, p. 217.

133 Hague Regulations, above note 32, Art. 23(g); GC IV, Art. 53.

134 Hague Regulations, above note 32, Art. 47; GC IV, Art. 33(2).

135 ILC Draft Articles, above note 66, p. 167.

136 Israel appears to have contested such restrictions: see Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Israel, “Memorandum of Law on the Right to Develop New Oil Fields in Sinai and the Gulf of Suez”, reproduced in International Legal Materials, Vol. 17, No. 2, 1978, p. 432.

137 ILC, above note 49, p. 54.

138 ILC Draft Articles, above note 66, p. 166.

139 Das, Onita, Environmental Protection, Security and Armed Conflict: A Sustainable Development Perspective, Edward Elgar, Cheltenham, 2013, p. 63CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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141 See, inter alia, Netherlands, Advisory Report on the ILC's Draft Principles on Protection of the Environment in Relation to Armed Conflicts, June 2020, p. 1.

142 Israel, above note 110, pp. 25–28.

143 For an example of alleged unsustainable practice of forestry exploitation, see Azerbaijan's claim that Armenia's occupation has caused intensive deforestation in the formerly occupied Nagorno Karabakh region, with, according to the former's assertions, “[t]housands of hectares of forests … cut due to exploitation of new mines”: Azercosmos and Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Azerbaijan, Illegal Activities in the Territories of Azerbaijan under Armenia's Occupation: Evidence from Satellite Imagery, 2019, p. 89; Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Azerbaijan, Illegal Economic and Other Activities in the Occupied Territories of Azerbaijan, 2016, pp. 82–84. See also the allegations of abusive exploitation of fisheries by Morocco in the waters of Western Sahara: Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic, First Indicative Nationally Determined Contribution, 2021, pp. 30–31; Thilo Marauhn and Barry de Vries, “Natural Resources in Times of Occupation”, in Michael L. Fremuth, Jörn Griebel and Robert Heinsch (eds), Natural Resources and International Law: Developments and Challenges: A Liber Amicorum in Honour of Stephen Hobe, Nomos, Baden-Baden, 2022, pp. 70–71.

144 ILC Draft Articles, above note 66, p. 167. See also UNGA Res. 76/225, “Permanent Sovereignty of the Palestinian People in the Occupied Palestinian Territory, including East Jerusalem, and of the Arab Population in the Occupied Syrian Golan over Their Natural Resources”, 11 January 2022, paras 2–3: the UN General Assembly, recalling the permanent sovereignty of Palestinians over their natural resources, demanded that Israel “cease the exploitation, damage, cause of loss or depletion and endangerment of the natural resources” of the occupied Palestinian territory and recognized the right of the occupied population to claim restitution for any of those acts. Significantly, it stated that Israel's practices leading to environmental degradation and depletion of natural resources impact the realization of the Sustainable Developments Goals.

145 UN General Assembly, Report of the Secretary-General: Implications under International Law of the United Nations Resolutions on Permanent Sovereignty over Natural Resources on the Occupied Palestinian and Other Arab Territories and on the Obligations of Israel Concerning Its Conduct in These Territories, UN Doc. A/38/265, 21 June 1983, para. 47.

146 S. Jarrar, above note 2, p. 53.

147 See K. Hulme, above note 90, p. 209.

148 Barral, Virginie, “Sustainable Development in International Law: Nature and Operation of an Evolutive Legal Norm”, European Journal of International Law, Vol. 23, No. 2, 2012, pp. 283CrossRefGoogle Scholar ff.

149 ICRC, above note 22, p. 39.

150 T. Ferraro, above note 79, p. 55.

151 Martti Koskenniemi, “Occupied Zone – ‘a Zone of Reasonableness’?”, Israel Law Review, Vol. 41, 2008, p. 29.

152 Michael Mason, “The Application of Warfare Ecology to Belligerent Occupations”, in Gary Machlis, Thor Hanson, Zdravko Špirić and Jean McKendry (eds), Warfare Ecology: A New Synthesis for Peace and Security, Springer, Dordrecht, 2011, p. 170.

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155 T. Ferraro, above note 79, pp. 75–76.

156 Natalie Sauer, “Russia-Ukraine Dispute over Crimea Spills into UN Climate Forum”, Climate Home News, 7 January 2021, available at: www.climatechangenews.com/2021/01/07/russia-ukraine-dispute-crimea-spills-un-climate-forum/.

157 B. K. Weinger, above note 77, p. 2.

158 Ministry of Energy and Environmental Protection of Ukraine, Ukraine's Greenhouse Gas Inventory 1990–2018, 2020, pp. 4, 365; Georgia, Nationally Determined Contribution, 2021, p. 8.

159 In this sense, see ILC Draft Articles, above note 66, Principle 21.