A version of this paper was presented at the Organization of American Historians annual meeting, April 1995. I am grateful to all participants for their comments and suggestions. I would like to thank Sheldon Stromquist, Linda Kerber, Nancy Gabin, Alison Kibler, and ILWCH's anonymous reader for their helpful critiques of various drafts of this essay.

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14. Summary memorandum, “8,854 Job Discrimination Charges Filed with EEOC in First Year,” n.d., Box 7, folder 8, Ellickson, Katherine Collection, 1921–1978, Walter Reuther Archives of Labor and Urban Affairs, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI; Graham, Civil Rights Era, 228–29.Google Scholar

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17. Pollard, William E. to Slaiman, Don, August 3, 1972, Box 33, AFL-CIO Department of Civil Rights Collection, George Meany Memorial Archives, Silver Spring, MD.Google Scholar

18. On the UPWA's rank-and-file history see Fehn's “Striking Women”; Horowitz, Roger, “The Path Not Taken: A Social History of Industrial Unionism in Meatpacking, 1930–1960” (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1990);Google ScholarWilson, Warren, “The Limits of New Deal Social Democracy: Working Class Structural Pluralism in MidWestern Meatpacking, 1900–1955” (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Pittsburgh, 1993);Google Scholar and Halpern, Rick, “‘Black and White, Unite and Fight’: Race and Labor in Meatpacking, 1904–1948” (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Pennsylvania, 1989).Google Scholar

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21. For an example of an ABC classification agreement, see Labor Agreement, John Morrell and Company and Local 1 UPWA (1967–70), State Historical Society of Iowa Labor Collection, Iowa City. Various EEOC complaints review the history of harassment. See, for example, EEOC decision, Case No. KC 7-2-117, Puffinharger et al. Morrell, v. and Local 1 UPWA, August 14, 1968, Box 25, folder 9, AMBW P-1 Collection.Google Scholar

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25. EEOC Decision Cases No. CL 7-2-261U and 6-2-946U, Katherine K. Raschak v. IUE Local 7171, Youngstown, Ohio; June 2, 1967, Box 42, Group 2, IUE Collection.

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30. Quoted in New York Times, September 12, 1970.

31. Maschke, Karen J., Litigation, Courts, and Women Workers (New York, 1989), 103.Google Scholar See also Hill, Ann Corinne, “Protection of Women Workers and the Courts: A Legal Case History,” Feminist Studies 5 (Summer 1979):261;Google ScholarFreeman, Jo, The Politics of Women's Liberation: A Case Study of an Emerging Social Movement and its Relation to the Policy Process (New York, 1975), 164–66.Google Scholar

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33. New York Times, December 14, 1967.

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35. Ibid.

36. Los Angeles Times clipping, March 7, 1966, Box 44, folder 22, AFL-CIO Legislation Collection.

37. Quoted in Gabin, , Feminism, 191. The International Chemical Workers testified against protective laws at the hearings as well.Google Scholar

38. Gabin, , Feminism, 202–5.Google Scholar

39. On the small number of women in elected union office, and the larger number in appointed positions, see Dewey, Lucretia M., “Women in Labor Unions”, Monthly Labor Review 94 (02 1971):44–47.Google Scholar

40. Miller, Ruth to Samuel, Howard, November 21Google Scholar, 1969, Carton 9, folder 294, Esther Peterson Collection, 1910–84, Schlesinger Library, Radcliffe College, Cambridge, MA [hereafter, Peterson Collection, 1910–84].

41. Cobble, Dishing It Out, 4–10.

42. Anne Draper to Andrew Biemiller, Don Slaiman, and Tom Harris, Carton 9, folder 294, Peterson Collection, 1910–84. The IAM is the International Association of Machinists.

43. Ibid.

44. Draper, Anne to Samuel, Howard D., December 22Google Scholar, 1969, Carton 9, folder 294, Peterson Collection, 1910–84.

45. Ibid. Federation lobbyist Andrew Biemiller was still trying to save women's protective laws in 1970 but Draper thought it futile. See Anne Draper to Andrew Biemiller, January 16, 1970, Carton 9, folder 294, Peterson Collection, 1910–84.

46. Hardesty, Doris Gibson, “The Continuing Fight for Women's Rights”, American Federationist (January 1971), 15.Google Scholar

47. Ibid., 13.

48. Ibid., 15; Andrew J. Biemiller to Emily Stoper, March 24, 1972, Box 17, folder 10, AFL-CIO Legislation Collection.

49. Testimony of Ruth Miller, U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee of the Judiciary, Equal Rights 1970: Hearings Before the Committee on the Judiciary, United States Senate, on S.J. Res. 61 and 231, 91st Cong., 2nd Sess., September 1970, 230.

50. Submitted Statement of the International Union of Electrical Workers, U.S. Congress, House, Committee on the Judiciary, Equal Rights for Men and Women, 1971; Hearings Before Subcommittee No. 4 of the Committee on the Judiciary, House of Representatives, on H.J. Res. 35, 208, 916, and Related Bills, 92nd Cong., 1st Sess., 1971, 331–43.

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55. Cobble, Dishing It Out, 80, 158; Evans v. Sheraton Park Hotel, 5 FEP Cases, 503 F. 2d 177 (1974).

56. Cobble, Dishing It Out, 10.

57. Quoted in Cobble, Dishing It Out, 151. For a discussion of radical feminists' misgivings about the ERA along similar lines, see Echols, Alice, Daring to Be Bad: Radical Feminism in America, 1967–75 (Minneapolis, 1989), 200, 366 fn. 36.Google Scholar

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61. Typescript, Esther Peterson, Address to the AFL-CIO National Auxiliaries Convention, December 11, 1967, Box 1, folder 2, Peterson Collection, 1910–84.

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65. Typescript, Elizabeth Duncan Koontz at Women's Organizations Consultation meeting on the 50th Anniversary of the Women's Bureau, February 26, 1970, Box 55, folder 22, AFL-CIO Legislation Collection. See also Graham, Civil Rights Era, 409; Hartmann, From Margin to Mainstream, 103 for background on the Department of Labor's position on the ERA in the late 1960s and early 1970s.

66. Hartmann, From Margin to Mainstream, 103; Balser, Diane, Sisterhood and Solidarity: Feminism and Labor in Modern Times (Boston, 1987), 103; Kessler-Harris, Out to Work, 315.Google Scholar

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73. Andrew J. Biemiller to Mary Condon Gereau, December 6, 1973, Box 17, folder 10, AFL-CIO Legislation Collection.

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76. Milkman, “Feminism and Labor since the 1960s,” 309.

77. Foner, Women and the Labor Movement, 486, 498–500.

78. CLUW News, Winter 1975, Box 13, folder 1, Coalition of Labor Union Women Collection, Walter Reuther Archives of Labor History and Urban Affairs, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI [hereafter, CLUW Collection].

79. Philadelphia Inquirer clipping, January 29, 1974, Box 1, folder 5, CLUW Collection.

80. CLUW News, Summer 1975, Box 13, folder 1, CLUW Collection.

81. Pamphlet, “Statement of Purpose, Structure and Guidelines, adopted by Coalition of Labor Union Women Founding Conference, March 23–24, 1974, Chicago, Illinois”, Box 1, folder 17, CLUW Collection.

82. See, for example, the charges that “union contracts don't begin to protect women from discriminatory practices” (Memo, n.a., n.d. [1973–1974], Box 1, folder 16, CLUW Collection). CLUW dropped its official naming of unions as suspect parties in discrimination with employers in 1977 (see Typescript, Resolutions Passed, 1977 Convention, Box 11, folder 10, CLUW Collection).

83. Milkman, “Feminism and Labor since the 1960s”, 309.

84. Mary Callahan, interview with Alice M. Hoffman and Karen Budd, Philadelphia, PA, May 7, 1976, Twentieth–Century Trade Union Women: Vehicles for Social Change, Oral History Project, Wayne State University, Detroit, Mich.; Olga Madar to Karen De Crow, May 5, 1975, Box 14, folder 12, CLUW collection.

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