I would like to thank Barbara Weinstein and Joel Stillerman for their insightful comments on an earlier draft of this article. Except when otherwise indicated, all interviews cited below were conducted by the author. As guaranteed to these interviewees, their testimony is anonymous.

1. Confederacién de Trabajadores del Cobre, Memoria, Congreso Ordinario, Punta de Tralca, 1983 (copy in author's possession).Google Scholar

2. Cathy Schneider, for example, has offered an important critique of the “new social movement” perspective, arguing that in urban squatter settlements protests were generated out of the underground survival of neighborhood networks of leftist activists. However, Schneider also takes the subject of the popular protests of the 1980s to be the urban poor, rather than workers or miners. See Schneider, Cathy, Shantytown Protest in Pinochet's Chile (Philadalphia, 1995).Google Scholar

3. See Stillerman, Joel, “‘Dando la Pelea Hasta el Final’: Metal Workers' Resistance in Authoritarian Chile, 1976–1983,” paper presented at the Thirteenth Annual Latin American Labor History Conference, Duke University, 1996.Google Scholar Other important works on the union movement under the military regime include: Campero, Guillermo and Valenzuela, José A., El Movimiento Sindicat en el Regimen Militar Chileno, 1973–1981 (Santiago, 1984);Google ScholarBarrera, Manuel, Henriquez, Helia, and Selamé, Teresita, Sindicatos y Estado en el Chile Actual (Santiago, 1985);Google ScholarJaime, Ruiz-Tagle P., El Sindicalismo Chileno después dle Plan Laboral (Santiago, 1985);Google ScholarBarrera, Manuel and Falabella, Gonzalo, Sindicatos bajo Régimenes Militares: Argentina, Brasil, Chile (Santiago, 1990);Google ScholarBarrera, Manuel and Valenzuela, J. Samuel, “The Development of Labor Movement Opposition to the Military Regime,” in Dictatorship and Oppositions: Military Rule in Chile, ed. Valenzuela, J. Samuel and Valenzuela, Arturo (Baltimore, 1986);Google ScholarAngell, Alan, “Unions and Workers in Chile during the 1980s,” in The Struggle for Democracy in Chile, 1982–1990, ed. Drake, Paul W. and Jaksic, Iván (Lincoln, 1991).Google Scholar

4. For a history of copper miners before 1973 see Klubock, Thomas Miller, Contested Communities: Class, Gender, and Politics in Chile's El Teniente Copper Mine, 1904–1948 (Durham, 1998).Google Scholar

5. See Bitar, Sergio and Pizarro, Crisostomo, La Caída de Allende y Ia Huelga de El Teniente (Santiago, 1986).Google Scholar The Chilean labor code divided blue-collar workers (obreros), who engaged in mostly manual labor, from white-collar workers (empleados), who worked in offices and performed work of a more technical nature. Empleados and obreros unions often negotiated separate contracts and had access to different benefits and wage structures. In El Teniente, the PDC controlled most of the mine's small empleado unions during the late 1960s and during Allende's government, while the PS and PC continued to dominate the obrero unions. The 1973 strike was largely the result of the activities of PDC activists and the empleado unions that opposed the UP. During the strike, the obrero unions mostly continued to work and to express their support for the UP.

6. The nationalist Díaz was replaced in 1976 by Sergio Fernández, who then became minister of the interior in 1978 and one of the most outspoken and radical ideologues of the Pinochet regime, particularly as a champion of neoliberal economic policies.Google Scholar

7. Interview, member of the Sindicato Industrial Caletones El Teniente, Rancagua, July 1991.Google Scholar

8. Interview with former El Teniente union leader and labor activist, Rancagua, March 2, 1992.Google Scholar

9. Informe del Cobre, December 1983.Google Scholar

10. Interview, former El Teniente union leader and labor activist, Rancagua, March 2, 1992.Google Scholar

11. Interview, member of the Sindicato Industrial Caletones El Teniente, Rancagua, July 1991.Google Scholar

12. For a discussion of private contractors in the copper industry see Confederación de Trabajadores del Cobre, Congreso Ordinario, Memona, July 26–28, 1982. Also see Confederación de Trabajadores del Cobre, Congreso Ordinario, Memoria, March, 6–8 1987 (in author's possession); and Voz del Minero, December 1985.Google Scholar

13. Interview, former union leader, Sindicato Industrial Sewell y Mina, Rancagua, November 25, 1992.Google Scholar

14. Informe del Cobre, June 1983.Google Scholar

15. Voz del Minero, October 1985; see also Voz del Minero, June 1984, June 1988.Google Scholar

16. Informe del Cobre, June 1983.Google Scholar

17. La Voz del Minero, October 1985; interview, member of the Sindicato Industrial Caletones, Rancagua, July 1991.Google Scholar

18. Interview, union leader, Sindicato Industrial Rancagua, Rancagua, March 18, 1991.Google Scholar

19. For an analysis of the Labor Plan see análisis, July 1979.Google Scholar

20. Ruiz-Tagle, El Sindicalismo Chileno.Google Scholar

21. Ibid.

22. Interview, member of the Sindicato Industrial Caletones, Rancagua, July 1991.Google Scholar

23. Ibid.

24. Interview, Rancagua, June 12, 1992 (with assistance from Paola Fernández).Google Scholar

25. Interview, union leader, Sindicato Industrial Sewell y Mina, Rancagua, November 25, 1991.Google Scholar

26. Interview, union leader, Sindicato Industrial Rancagua, Rancagua, March 18, 1991.Google Scholar

27. “Memoria,” Confederación de Trabajadores del Cobre, Congreso Ordinario, Santiago, January 1984 (copy in author's possession).Google Scholar

28. Interview, member of the Sindicato Industrial Caletones, Rancagua, July 1991.Google Scholar

29. Interview, union leader, Sindicato Industrial Coya y Pangal, Rancagua, March 26, 1991.Google Scholar

30. Interview, former El Teniente union leader and labor activist, Rancagua, March 2, 1992. The “cage” is the massive elevator that transports miners to tunnels inside the mine.Google Scholar

31. For accounts of the strike see El Rancagüino, November 4–12 and November 24, 1977. Also see El Mercurio, November 4–8, 1977.Google Scholar

32. For histories of these organizations see Barrera and Valenzuela, “The Development of Labor Movement Opposition”; Angell, “Unions and Workers in Chile during the 1980s”; and Campero and Valenzuela, El Movimiento Sindical en el Régimen Militar Chileno, 1973–1981.Google Scholar

33. Interview, union leader, Sindicato Industrial Rancagua, Rancagua, March 18, 1991.Google Scholar

34. Ibid.

35. Interview, union leader, Sindicato Industrial Coya y Pangal, Rancagua, March 26, 1991.Google Scholar

36. Interview, former El Teniente union leader and labor activist, Rancagua, March 2, 1992.Google Scholar

37. Interview, union leader, Sindicato Industrial Coya y Pangal, Rancagua, 1991.Google Scholar

38. Interview, workers of the Sindicato Industrial Caletones, Rancagua, July 1991.Google Scholar

39. Interview, former El Teniente union leader and labor activist, Rancagua, March 2, 1992.Google Scholar

40. Ibid.

41. Ibid.

42. Vicaría de Pastoral Obrera, Arzobispado de Santiago, Informe de Trabajo No. 7, 1981, “Balance de Dos Anos de Negociación Colectiva.” Also see Páginas Sindicales for these years. In addition, see Ruiz-Tagle, El Sindicalismo Chileno después del Plan Laboral and Barrera, Henriquez, and Selamé, Sindicatos y Estado en el Chile actual.Google Scholar

43. Vicaría de Pastoral Obrera, “Balance de Dos Anos.”Google Scholar

44. Páginas Sindicales, January 1981.Google Scholar

45. Informe del Cobre, January 1983.Google Scholar

46. Informe del Cobre, June 1983.Google Scholar

47. Ibid.

48. Confederación de Trabajadores del Cobre, Congreso Extraordinario, Antofogasta, 1982; Congreso Ordmario, Punta de Tralca, July 26–28, 1982; Congreso Ordinario, Santiago, January 9, 1984 (copy in author's possession).Google Scholar

49. Confederación de Trabajadores del Cobre, Congreso Ordinario, Punta de Tralca, 1983 (copy in author's possession).Google Scholar

50. La Voz del Minero, November 1983, April 1984, June 1984, October 1984.Google Scholar

51. Informe del Cobre, December 1983.Google Scholar

52. Interview, member of the Sindicato Industrial Caletones El Teniente, Rancagua, July 1991.Google Scholar

53. Informe del Cobre, December 1983.Google Scholar

54. Interview, union leader, Sindicato Industrial Rancagua, Rancagua, March 18, 1991.Google Scholar

55. For descriptions of the protests see La Voz del Minero, 1983–1985.Google Scholar

56. Informe del Cobre, December 1983.Google Scholar

57. Interview, Rancagua, April 4, 1992 (with the assistance of Paola Fernandez).Google Scholar

58. Ibid.

59. Ibid.

60. For an important theoretical discussion of the role of urban social movements in Latin America based on struggles over the consumption of basic services rather than issues of production in poor neighborhoods, see Castells, Manuel, The City and the Grass-Roots (Berkeley, 1983).Google Scholar For a discussion of new social movements and Marxist theory see Laclau, Ernesto and Mouffe, Chantal, Hegemony and Socialist Strategy: Towards a Radical Democratic Politics (London, 1985)Google Scholar and Escobar, Arturo and Alvarez, Sonia, eds., The Making of Social Movements in Latin America: Identity, Strategy, and Democracy (Boulder, 1992).Google Scholar For the case of Chile, see Salazar, Gabriel, Violencia Polltica Popular en “Las Grandes Alamedas”: Santiago de Chile, 1947–1987 (Santiago, 1990)Google Scholar and Valdes, Teresa and Weinstein, Maria, “Las Pobladoras y el estado,” Proposiciones 21: Género, Mujer y Sociedad (Santiago, 1992).Google Scholar

61. Schneider, , Shantytown Protest.Google Scholar