Hostname: page-component-848d4c4894-nmvwc Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-06-19T04:40:35.960Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Islam and National Identity: The Case of Pakistan and Bangla Desh

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  29 January 2009

Nasir Islam
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Indian Muslims have always been keenly aware of the differences between their own communal group and the Hindus on the one hand, and between themselves and the Christian foreigners on the other. This awareness of a separate Muslim identity was much stronger at the level of the elite, however, than at the level of the masses. At times, these feelings erupted into calls for jihad against the British, for example, the Wahabi and Fraizia movements. They also manifested themselves in the creation of religious schools, like Deoband, to preserve the Muslim way of life. Finally they emerged as the reformist Aligarh Movement to promote modern education, reinterpret the teachings of Islam, and secure the rights of Muslims as a minority community. In the early twentieth century, various attempts were made to forge a united front with the Hindus for an India independent of Great Britain. These attempts met with repeated failure.

Type
Research Article
Information
International Journal of Middle East Studies , Volume 13 , Issue 1 , February 1981 , pp. 55 - 72
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1981

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

NOTES

1 Jamil-Ud-Din, Ahmad, Historic Documents of the Muslim Freedom (Lahore, 1970), pp. 380.Google Scholar

2 Keith, Callard, Pakistan: A Political Study (London: Allen and Unwin, 1957), p. 1.Google Scholar

3 Jamil-Ud-Din, Ahmad, Speeches and Writing of Mr. Jinnah (Lahore: Ashraf, 1952) 1, 469.Google Scholar

4 Leonard, Binder, Religion and Politics in Pakistan (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1963), p. 4.Google Scholar

5 For a distinction between Islam as a belief system and as a group identity, see Donald, Eugene Smith, Religion and Political Development (Boston: Little Brown, 1970), p. 161.Google Scholar

6 Report of the Court of Inquiry constituted under the Panjab Act II of 1954 to inquire into the Panjab disturbances of 1953.

7 See Wendell, Bill and Freeman, W. E., Ethnicity and Nation Building (Los Angeles: Sage. 1974).Google Scholar

8 See Results of the Pakistan Election in Pakistan Forum. 1, 3, (02–03, 1971), 10.Google Scholar

9 “Different Roads to Socialism” (editorial) in Forum, 2, 11 (01 30, 1971), 3.Google Scholar

10 Myron, Weiner, “The Politics of South Asia” in Gabriel, A. Almond and James, S. Coleman, The Politics of Developing Areas (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1960), p. 161.Google Scholar

11 Wilfred, C. Smith, Islam in Modern History (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1957), p. 54.Google Scholar

12 Edgar, Schuler and Kathryn, R. Schuler, Public Opinion and Constitution Making in Pakistan (Michigan State University Press, 1967), p. 199.Google Scholar

13 An excellent account of various interpretations of the Islamic state is found in Binder, Religion and Politics in Pakistan.

14 See, for example, Maulana, Maududi, Nationalism and India (translation from Urdu) (Pathankot, 1947).Google Scholar

15 Abbasi, S. Ghaleb Kahn and Abbasi, A. Zaya, The Structure of Islamic Polity, Part I (Lahore, 1952), pp. 5–6.Google Scholar

16 See Eric, A. Nordlinger, Conflict Regulation in Divided Societies (Cambridge. Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1972).Google Scholar

17 Raunaq, Jahan, Pakistan: Failure in National integration (New York: Columbia University Press, 1972).Google Scholar

18 Khalid, B. Sayeed, The Political System of Pakistan (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1967), pp. 72–73.Google Scholar

19 Chaudhri, G. W., Democracy in Pakistan (Dacca: Green Book House, 1963), p. 66.Google Scholar

20 Sayeed, , Political System of Pakistan, p. 87.Google Scholar

21 See Raunaq Jahan, Pakistan.

22 For details see “6 Points”, Pakistan Forum, 04–05, 1971, pp. 8–9.Google Scholar

23 Neville, Maxwell, “A Passage through Pakistan”, The New York Review of Books, 03 23. 1972.Google Scholar

24 Ramakrishna, Mukherjee, “The Social Background of Bangla Desh,” in Kathleen, Gaugh and Hari, P. Sharma, eds., Imperialism and Revolution in South Asia (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1973).Google Scholar

25 Howard Schuman, “Note on the Rapid Rise of Mass Nationalism in East Pakistan” (unpublished paper).

26 Howard, Schuman, “Note on the Rise of Mass Bengali Nationalism in East Pakistan,” American Journal of Sociology, 78, 2, (09 1972), 290–298.Google Scholar

27 See Bhattachargee, G. P., Renaissance and Freedom Movement in Bangla Desh (Calcutta: Miverva Associates, 1973), pp. 82–110.Google Scholar

28 Badruddin Umar, Kamruddin Ahmad. and Hasan Murshid produced major works on the reinterpretation of the Freedom Movement in India. Muffazal Haider Chaudhri, Abul Fazl, Abul Mansoor Ahmad, M. Shahidullah, Abdul Mannan, Hasimuddin, Sufia Kamal, and Hamida Rehman were some of the prominent writers, artists, and journalists who were the vanguard of the cultural renaissance in East Pakistan in the early fifties.

29 For details see Callard, Pakistan.

30 The Dawn (Karachi), 01 9 and 18, 1956.Google Scholar

31 Asaf, Hussain, Elite Politics in an ideological State (Folkstone: Dawson and Sons, 1979), pp. 94–95.Google Scholar See also Hannah, Papanek, “Pakistan's Big Businessmen: Muslim Separatism, Entrepreneurship and Partial Modernization,” Economic Development and Culture Change, 21, 1 (10 1972), 1–32.Google Scholar

32 Rashiduzzaman, M., “The Political Evolution of Bangla Desh.” Current History. 04 1979, p. 164.Google Scholar

33 Joseph, E. Stepanek, Bangla Desh: Equitable Growth? (New York: Pergamon Press. 1979), p. 9.Google Scholar

34 Rashiduzzaman, , Political Evolution of Bangla Desh, pp. 166–167.Google Scholar

35 See Trevor, Ling, “Creating a New State: The Bengalis of Bangla Desh,” South Asian Review, 5, 3 (04 1972), 222–224.Google Scholar

36 Government of Pakistan, White Paper on Baluchistan, Rawalpindi, 10, 1974.Google Scholar

37 Aquil, Kiian, “What Is Up in Baluchistan?” Outlook, 1, 36 (12 9, 1972), 5, and “Akbar Bugti Bides his Time”, p. 7.Google Scholaribid.,

38 See Lawrence, Lifschultz, “Festering Dilemma for Bhutto,; Far Eastern Economic Review, 05 28, 1976.Google Scholar

39 “Contradictions in Baluchistan,” Pakistan Forum, 3, 8–9 (05–06, 1973).Google Scholar

40 Y. Y. Gankovsky, The Peoples of Pakistan (Lahore: Peoples Publishing House, 1975), pp. 203–208.Google Scholar

41 See Sayeed, K. B., Pathan Regionalism, Reprint, No. 13, Commonwealth Studies Center, Duke University.Google Scholar

42 Mohammad, Said Khan, The Voice of Pushtoons (Lahore: Ferozsons, n. d.).Google Scholar

43 See “Pushtoonistan and the Pushtoon National Question,” in Feroz, Ahmed, ed., Focus on Batuchistan and Pushtoon National Question (Lahore: Peoples Publishing House, 1975).Google Scholar

44 See Khan, M. Said, “The Pushtoonistan Bogey I,” Khyber Mail, 01 12, 1969.Google Scholar

45 Norman, K. Nicholson and Dilawar, Ali Khan, Basic Democracies and Rural Development in Pakistan (Ithaca, N. Y.: Center for International Studies, Cornell University, 1974).Google Scholar